u 

and Crosby 



THE RURAL MANUALS 
• L-H BAILEY- EDITOR • 




Class __^x£i 
Book. 



Ss 



Copyright^?. 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT; 



MANUAL OF FEUIT INSECTS 







XTbe IRural /IDanuals 

4 « 








Edited by L. H. BAILEY 








J* 




Manual 


of 


Gardening — Bailey 




Manual 


OF 


Farm Animals — Harper 




Farm and » 


Garden Rule-Book — Bailey 




Manual 


01 


1 Fruit Insects — Slingerland 


and 


Crosby 






Manual 


OF 


Weeds — Georgia (in press) 




Manual 


OF 


Home-Making — In preparation 




Manual 


OF 


Cultivated Plants — In preparation 



MANUAL 



OF 



FRUIT INSECTS 



BY 

The late MARK VERNON SLINGERLAND 

AND 

CYRUS RICHARD CROSBY 

OF THE NEW YORK STATE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE 
AT CORNELL UNIVERSITY 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

1914 

All rights reserved 






COPYRIGHT, 1914, 

By THE MACMILLAN COMPANY. 



Set up and electrotyped. Published July, 1914. 



<• t i 



NorboooU ^reaa 

J. S. Cushing Co. — Berwick & Smith Co. 

Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. 

JUL 23 1914 

©CU376765 



WILLIAM SAUNDERS 

LEADER IN AGRICULTURAL INQUIRY 
AUTHOR OF "INSECTS INJURIOUS TO FRUITS " 

WHICH 

FOR NEARLY ONE-THIRD OF A CENTURY 

HAS BEEN THE STANDARD WORK ON THE SUBJECT 

THIS BOOK IS DEDICATED 

AS A TOKEN OF APPRECIATION 



PREFACE 

For nearly twenty years Professor Slingerland, as Assistant 
Entomologist of the Cornell University Agricultural Experiment 
Station, devoted the greater part of his time to studying the 
insect problems encountered by the fruit-growers of New York 
State. The results of some of these studies were published as 
bulletins of the Station, but a large amount of material remained 
unpublished. It was the idea of making this material available 
to other workers and at the same time bringing together in con- 
nected form all the more important known facts concerning the 
insect enemies of our deciduous fruits, that led Professor Slinger- 
land in the fall of 1908 to begin writing this book. During the 
few remaining months of his life he worked rapidly, and in spite 
of failing health wrote accounts of more than one-half of the 
apple insects and some others, mostly scale insects. 

After Professor Slingerland's death in March, 1909, I collected 
and preserved the manuscript, thinking that it might be possible 
to publish it without much additional work. While the treat- 
ment of each insect was complete in itself, the whole was so dis- 
connected that this plan had to be abandoned. Accordingly, in 
the summer of 1910 I undertook the task of completing the book, 
following Professor Slingerland's outline. In doing so, I have 
made free use of his unpublished notes, and most of the illustra- 
tions are from his photographs. 

We have attempted to treat only the more important insects 
injurious to deciduous fruits ; many of the minor pests have been 
omitted altogether. In each case the aim has been to give, in as 
concise form as possible, the main facts relating to the distribu- 
tion, life-history, and habits of the insect, the nature and extent 

vii 



yiii PREFACE 

4 

of the injury inflicted, and the means of control — the last from 
the standpoint of the commercial fruit-grower. At the end of 
the discussion of each insect, references are given to a few of the 
more important articles relating to the subject. These citations 
indicate sources of our information and will serve as a guide to 
those who wish to pursue the subject farther. 

I am under great obligations to Professor P. J. Parrott, Dr. 0. A. 
Johannsen, Dr. E. P. Felt, and Dr. Eobert Matheson, for carefully 
reading and correcting the manuscript and for many helpful sug- 
gestions. I have been unable to read the proof myself; this 
tedious but important work has been done by Dr. Matheson, 
Mrs. Matheson, M. D. Leonard, and by Mrs. Crosby — to them 
all I give my hearty thanks. 

Most of the illustrations are from photographs by Professor 
Slingerland; a few have been kindly furnished by Professor 
Herrick, H. H. Knight, and Dr. Matheson. The drawings are 
by Miss Anna C. Stryke. 

C. R. CROSBY. 

Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y., 
June 4, 1914. 



CONTENTS 



CHAPTER I 



General Considerations 



PAGE 
1 



CHAPTER II 



Apple Insects — The Fruit 
Codlin-moth 
Lesser apple worm 
Apple fruit-miner 
Apple red bugs . 
Apple maggot 
Apple curculio 
Apple weevil 
Green fruit-worms 



9 
10 
23 

26 
28 
31 
35 
38 
39 



CHAPTER HI 

Apple Insects — Buds and Foliage 
Bud-moth .... 
Fringed-wing apple bud-moth 
Apple bud-worm . 
Cigar-case-bearer 
Pistol case-bearer 
Palmer-worm 
Click-beetles 
Ribbed cocoon -maker 
Lesser apple leaf -roller 
Apple leaf-sewer . 
Fruit-tree leaf-roller 
Oblique-banded leaf-roller 
Four-banded leaf -roller 
Apple leaf-skeletonizer 

ix 



of the apple 



42 
42 
45 

46 
47 
49 
52 
55 
56 
59 
61 
62 
65 
66 
67 



CONTENTS 



Leaf-crumpler 
Trumpet leaf -miner . 
Lesser leaf-miners of the apple 
Spring canker-worm . 
Fall canker-worm 
Lime-tree span-worm . 
Mottled umber-moth . 
Brnce's measuring-worm 
Half- winged geometer 
White ennomid . 
White-marked tussock-moth 
California tussock-moth 
Antique tussock-moth 
Oriental moth 
Fall webworm 
Apple-tree tent-caterpillar 
Western tent-caterpillar 
Forest tent-caterpillar 
Yellow-necked apple caterpillar 
Red-humped apple caterpillar 
Saddled prominent 
Gipsy moth .... 
Brown-tail moth . 
Climbing cutworms 



CHAPTER IV 

Apple Insects — Aphis, Scales, and Others 
Plant-lice or aphids 
Apple leaf -aphis . 
Rosy apple aphis . 
Apple bud-aphis . 
Woolly aphis 
Buffalo tree-hopper 
San Jose" scale 
Oyster-shell scale 
Scurfy scale . 
Putnam's scale . 






CONTENTS 



XI 



PAGE 

Greedy scale , 180 

Apple leaf-hopper 180 

Bird's apple leaf-hopper 183 



CHAPTER V 

Apple Insects — Borers and Miscellaneous 
Apple bud-borer . 
Round-headed apple-tree borer 
Spotted apple-tree borer 
Flat-headed apple-tree borer 
Apple wood-stainer 
Bronze apple-tree weevil 
Twig-pruner 
Twig-girdler 
Flea-beetles . 
Clover-mite . 
Two-spotted mite 
Ring-legged tree-bug 
Eye-spotted apple-twig borer 
New York weevil 
Snowy tree-cricket 
Other apple insects 



184 
184 
185 
193 
194 
198 
199 
200 
202 
203 
206 
208 
208 
209 
210 
211 
212 



CHAPTER VI 

Pear and Quince Insects 214 

Pear slug 214 

PearPsylla. 218 

False tarnished plant-bug 221 

Pear thrips 223 

Pear midge 225 

Pear-leaf blister-mite . . 227 

Sinuate pear borer 230 

Pear-blight beetle 232 

Howard scale . . 234 

European pear scale 234 

Other pear insects ......... 235 



xil CONTENTS 

PAGK 

Quince insects 236 

Quince curculio 236 

Other quince insects 241 

CHAPTER VII 

Plum Insects 243 

Plum curculio 243 

Plum gouger . . 251 

American plum borer 253 

Plum web-spinning sawfly 254 

Plum leaf-beetle 255 

Hop plant-louse 256 

Plum plant-louse 257 

Mealy plum-louse 258 

Rusty brown plum aphis 259 

European fruit-tree scale ........ 260 

European fruit lecanium 261 

Other plum insects 264 



CHAPTER VIII 

Peach Insects 266 

Peach-tree borer 266 

Pacific peach-tree borer 275 

Lesser peach-tree borer 276 

Fruit-tree bark-beetle 277 

Peach bark-beetle . 282 

Peach twig-borer 284 

Striped peach worm 287 

Peach sawfly 287 

Black peach aphis . . . 289 

Green peach aphis 291 

Terrapin scale 293 

White peach scale .• , . . 295 

Green June-beetle 296 

Peach stop-back . 299 

Other peach insects 302 



CONTENTS xiii 
CHAPTER IX 

PAGE 

Cherry Insects . 304 

Cherry fruit-flies . . 304 

Cherry fruit-sawfly 307 

Cherry-tree tortrix . 309 

Cherry plant-louse . . . 310 

Cherry scale . 312 

Other cherry insects 313 

CHAPTER X 

Raspberry, Blackberry, and Dewberry Insects . . • 315 

Red-spider 315 

Blackberry leaf-miner 317 

Raspberry sawfly 319 

Raspberry webworm . . . 321 

Raspberry leaf-roller 321 

Blackberry psyllid . . . 322 

American raspberry beetle 323 

Negro-bug * 324 

Tree-cricket. 325 

Raspberry cane-borer 326 

Raspberry cane-maggot 329 

Red-necked cane-borer 332 

Raspberry horntail . . . . . . . . . 334 

Blackberry crown-borer . . . . ... . . 335 

Rose scale 336 

Other raspberry and blackberry insects 338 

CHAPTER XI 

Currant and Gooseberry Insects 339 

Imported currant borer 339 

Imported currant worm 341 

Green currant worm . 344 

Gooseberry span-worm 345 

Pepper-and-salt currant moth 346 



xiv CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Four-lined leaf -bug 347 

Currant plant-louse 350 

Gooseberry midge 353 

Gooseberry fruit-worm 353 

Yellow currant fruit-flv 355 

Dark currant fruit-fly 356 

Currant-stem girdler 357 

Walnut scale 360 

Other currant and gooseberry insects ..... 360 

CHAPTER XII 

Strawberry Insects 361 

Strawberry leaf-roller 361 

Obsolete-banded strawberry leaf-roller 364 

Black-marked strawberry slug 366 

Green strawberry slug 368 

Strawberry whitefly ......... 369 

Strawberry flea-beetle 370 

Imbricated snout-beetle ........ 371 

Strawberry weevil . . . . . . . . . 372 

Tarnished plant-bug 375 

Strawberry thrips ......... 379 

Ground-beetles 380 

Strawberry root-louse 382 

Strawberry crown-moth ........ 384 

Strawberry crown-girdler . . . . . . . .386 

Black vine-weevil 387 

Strawberry crown-borer . 388 

Fuller's rose beetle 389 

Strawberry root-worms . . . . . . . .391 

White grubs . . . .393 

Other strawberry insects 396 

CHAPTER XIII 

Grape Insects 397 

Rose chafer . . 397 

Vine chafers 402 



CONTENTS xv 



PAGE 



Grape-vine flea-beetle 403 

Grape leaf-hopper 408 

Grape-leaf skeletonizer 42 g 

Grape-vine sawfly 417 

Grape leaf -folder 418 

Eight-spotted forester 420 

Erinose of the vine 421 

Grape plume-moth 422 

Grape-cane borer . 423 

Grape-cane gall-maker 425 

Grape-cane girdler 426 

Cottony maple scale 427 

Grape scale 429 

Grape-berry moth 430 

Grape-blossom midge 437 

Grape curculio . . . . . . . . m 440 

Grape root-worm , 443 

California grape root-worm 451 

Grape-vine root-borer 452 

Grape phylloxera 455 

Other grape insects ■ 459 

CHAPTER XIV 

Cranberry Insects 460 

Black-headed cranberry worm 460 

Yellow-headed cranberry worm . 462 

Cranberry span-worm 464 

Cranberry gall-fly . . 465 

Cranberry fruit-worm 466 

Cranberry katydid 467 

Cranberry girdler 468 

False army-worm 470 

Cranberry fulgorid 472 

CHAPTER XV 

Insecticides 474 

Arsenic . . . . 474 

Paris green 475 



xvi CONTENTS 

PAGE 

London purple 475 

Arsenate of lead 476 

Zinc arsenite . . . . . . . . . . 479 

Hellebore 479 

Soaps 480 

Sulfur 480 

Lime-sulfur solution ......... 481 

Emulsions 486 

Miscible oils 487 

Tobacco 488 

Bordeaux mixture ......... 489 

Fumigation 491 

INDEX 493 



MANUAL OF FRUIT INSECTS 



MANUAL OF FRUIT INSECTS 



CHAPTER I 

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 

Insects are among the most formidable enemies to successful 
fruit-growing. According to conservative estimates from 20 
to 40 per cent of the fruit crop of the United States is annually 
destroyed by insect pests. In 1909 Quaintance estimated the 
annual loss to the deciduous fruit interests of the country from 
insect depredations at over $66,000,000, divided as follows : 

Codlin-moth $16,716,667 

San Jose scale 10,528,265 

Peach-tree borers . . . . . . . . 6,000,000 

Grape insects 8,769,905 

Plum curculio 8,590,769 

Miscellaneous apple insects 10,089,932 

Miscellaneous pear insects 1,328,613 

Cranberry insects ....... 396,656 

Miscellaneous stone fruit insects . . . 3,693,843 

Total . $66,114,650 



t 



This sum includes the cost of spraying and other repressive 
measures for the control of fruit insects. 

The enemies of fruits treated in this book belong, with one or 
two exceptions, to the class of animals known as insects. The 
pear leaf blister-mite, the red-spider and clover-mite belong to 
the Arachnida. In many respects insects differ widely from 
the higher animals with whose structure we are more familiar. 

B 1 



2 FRUIT INSECTS 

They have a horny or chitinous external skeleton or shell which 
serves as a protection to the internal organs and as an attach- 
ment for the muscles. This outer shell is divided into a series 
of rings or segments. In insects the body is divided into three 
well-defined regions, — head, thorax and abdomen (Fig. 1). 



Weil 



^Elytron 



TherdK 



^-ffindMnf 



Abdomen , 




Fig. 1. — Ventral view of a beetle. 



The head bears a pair of compound eyes, two or three simple 
eyes, a pair of antennae and the mouth parts. The thorax is 
composed of three segments and bears on the inner side three 
pairs of legs, one pair to each segment, and on the upper side 
two pairs of wings, a pair on each of the last two segments. 
In the flies, only one pair of wings is present, the hind pair being 



GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 



represented by a pair of knobbed appendages known as poisers. 
The wings are variously modified for different uses. In the 
beetles the front pair are very hard and horny and not suited 
for flight, but fitting closely together serve as a protection 
to the hind wings which in repose are folded under them 

(Fig. 1). 

The abdomen consists of from ten to twelve segments. In 
many species the 

tip in the female y. / 

is provided with a 
sharp lancelike or 
saw-edged oviposi- 
tor, with which she 
punctures the tissue 
of plants and in- 
serts her eggs in the 
wound so made (see 
Fig. 317, p. 358). 

How insects feed. 

The mouth parts 
of insects are 
adapted for feeding 
on all sorts of tissue, from the tender leaves and ripening fruit 
to the solid wood itself. From the standpoint of control it is of 
great importance to know just how each insect obtains its food. 

For the purpose of control insects may be roughly divided 
into three classes as follows : 

1. Chevying insects: Beetles and caterpillars belong here. 
They are provided with hard horny jaws or mandibles with 
which they bite off and swallow portions of the tissue of plants 
as shown in Figure 2. It is usually possible to kill such insects 
by poisoning their food with an arsenical. 

2. Sucking insects: Plant lice and other true bugs are 
furnished with a beak containing four bristles united into a 




Fig. 2. — A caterpillar feeding, showing the biting 
type of mouth parts. 



FRUIT INSECTS 



slender tube. In feeding, the tip of the beak is applied to the 
surface of the plant, the bristles are inserted into the tissue and 

the plant juices are sucked 
out (Fig. 3). Contact insec- 
ticides must be used against 
this class. 

3. Lapping insects: In the 
fruit flies the mouth parts 
are developed into a tongue- 
like organ with which the 
insect is able to lap or lick 
up liquids (Fig. 4). Arsenical 
poisons have been used suc- 
cessfully for the control of 
this class of insects. 

In different stages of its 
development the same insect 
may have different kinds of 
mouth parts, and may feed 

Fig. 3.-A plant-louse feeding, show- ° n entirely different foods; 
ing the sucking type of mouth parts, for instance, caterpillars have 

From a German drawing. ■, ., . ,-■ , j _^,„„ 

biting mouth parts and may 
feed on leaves, while the adults, moths, 
have sucking mouth parts with which 
they extract the nectar from flowers. 

How insects breathe. 

Insects do not possess lungs, but 
breathe through a series of openings 
called spiracles extending along each side 
of the body. These openings connect 
with tubes called tracheae, which, sub- 
dividing again and again, extend to all 

parts of the body. Some contact in- fr J t -ny, ^ing'thelap! 
secticides are supposed to clog these ping type of mouth parts. 





GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 5 

tubes and so smother the insect, while others, like the oils, 
are said to penetrate the thin walls of the tracheae and thus 
reach a vital part in the internal organs of the insect. 

The development of insects. 

Most insects, with the exception of some scale insects and 
certain forms of plant lice, reproduce by means of eggs. The 
newly hatched insect usually bears little resemblance to the 
adult. As it increases in size its skin becomes too small and 
a new skin is formed beneath the old one and the latter is dis- 
carded; this is known as molting. The period between two 
successive molts is called an instar. The number of instars 
varies in different insects from three to six or seven ; five is 
the more common number. In some insects the change from 
the immature condition to the winged adult takes place with- 
out any material change in form ; in others the transformation 
is abrupt and striking. In the former case the insect is said 
to have an incomplete metamorphosis; in the latter a complete 
metamorphosis. 

Incomplete metamorphosis. 

In this type of development the immature stages resemble 
the adult in form. The wings develop externally as pad-like 
outgrowths of the thorax but do not become functional till the 
adult stage is reached. The immature forms are known as 
nymphs. In this type of development the life cycle of the 
insect consists of three stages, viz. the egg, the nymph (3-5 
instars) and the adult. The true bugs and grasshoppers have 
incomplete metamorphosis. 

Complete metamorphosis. 

In this case the immature stages of the insect bear little or 
no resemblance to the adult. The wings develop internally in 
pockets formed by an infolding of the body wall of the thorax. 
The immature stages are known as larvae. The larva molts 
five or six times, and when full-grown transforms to an in- 
active pupa, usually in a cocoon or earthen cell prepared by 



6 FRUIT INSECTS 

the larva. The pupa is a resting stage in which the organs of 
the larva are broken down and made over into those of the adult. 
In the pupa the antennae, legs and wings of the adult are usually 
evident, closely applied to the body and covered by the pupal 
skin. When the remarkable internal structural changes in the 
pupa are complete the adult winged insect emerges. In this 
type of development there are four stages, viz. egg, larva (5-6 
instars), pupa, adult. Butterflies, moths (caterpillars) and 
beetles have complete metamorphosis. 

The control of insects. 

In spite of the many natural checks to which insects are sub- 
ject, such as extremes of temperature, drought and wet, the 
depredation of parasitic and predacious enemies, and the results 
of fungous and bacterial diseases, it is usually necessary to pro- 
tect the fruit crop by artificial means. The control of each 
insect is a special problem, and its solution requires a thorough 
knowledge of the life history and habits of the insect as well as 
an understanding of the nature of the crop and the conditions 
under which it is grown. 

Substances used for killing insects are known as insecticides, 
and are discussed in the last chapter of this book, page 474. 

Spraying. 

Insecticides are most commonly applied in the form of a 
liquid by means of a spray pump. In the case of poisons 
the object is to cover the foliage evenly with the spray so that 
the insect will be sure to get it in feeding ; in the case of con- 
tact insecticides it is necessary to hit each insect. Spraying 
is an art, and the finer points can only be learned by practice. 
Success will depend on the timeliness of the application and the 
thoroughness with which the work is done. Young insects are 
killed more easily than old ones, and it is easier to kill a few 
early in the season than to wait until they have become abundant 
before spraying. In spraying the grower should always have 
a definite object in view. He should study his trees, find out 



GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS 7 

their needs, and treat them accordingly. A general spray- 
given with a vague hope of " doing some good " rarely ever pays. 
It is important that the application be made at the proper time. 
Development of the buds and blossoms should be watched and 
the spraying timed accordingly. It is not safe to go by the cal- 
endar. Unless the spraying is done thoroughly it is likely to 
be wasted effort — do a good job but do not overdo it. Use 
enough liquid and put it in the right place at the right time, 
thus avoiding waste and unnecessary expense. A sprayer 
should be selected adapted to the crop and to the size of the 
orchard. Use the best nozzles, pump and engine you can buy ; 
a good workman deserves good tools, and they pay in the long 
run. Use only standard spray materials and buy them of 
reputable dealers. It is expensive business to experiment with 
quack remedies or to use cure-alls of unknown composition. 

Dusting. 

Insecticides are sometimes applied in the form of a dust. 
The results obtained by dusting have in general not been so 
satisfactory as those obtained by spraying, but more recent 
experiments where finer materials were used have shown that 
this method may be of great value. It is especially useful 
where the supply of water is not convenient or limited. 

Clean farming. 

In many cases the application of insecticides alone is not 
sufficient to control orchard insects, but must be supplemented 
by other measures. The accumulation of dead leaves, grass 
and weeds along fences or in hedgerows provides ideal winter 
quarters for many insects. Stone walls, stone piles, and similar 
shelters make the control of the plum curculio unnecessarily 
difficult. Uncultivated apple orchards are usually more sus- 
ceptible to injury by curculio, apple maggot, leaf miners, and 
insects with similar hibernating habits. By practicing clean 
farming many of these pests will be reduced to a minimum, so 
as to be more readily controlled by spraying. Furthermore, 



8 FRUIT INSECTS 

trees that are in a vigorous, healthy condition from proper 
cultivation are as a rule less subject to spray injury and are, 
therefore, able to receive stronger and more frequent applica- 
tions of insecticides without danger. 

Crop rotation. 

In the case of strawberries and some other small fruits a fre- 
quent rotation of crops will tend to clear the land of many 
insect pests which cannot be reached satisfactorily in other ways. 
This is particularly true of wire-worms, white grubs and the 
strawberry root-worm. 



CHAPTER II 
APPLE INSECTS — THE FRUIT 

Nearly five hundred species of insects have been recorded as 
feeding on the apple, but fortunately, the greater part of them 
do not cause enough damage to be considered of economic 
importance and are not treated in this book. Many of the 
most important apple insects have come to us from foreign 
lands; the codlin-moth and bud-moth from Europe, and the 
San Jose scale from China; others fed originally on the wild 
thorn, as the apple maggot and apple curculio, but have found 
in our orchards an abundance of food and other conditions 
better to their liking. Many apple insects also attack the 
pear and quince. 

In spraying apples the insecticide can usually be combined 
to advantage with a fungicide for the control of apple scab. 
The following spraying schedule for the San Jose scale, codlin- 
moth, bud-moth, case-bearers, and apple scab is intended for 
New York State conditions, but with modifications might be used 
in other regions. 

Dormant spray. 

As the leaf buds begin to show green 

Lime-sulfur (32 degrees Beaume) , diluted 1 to 8, for San Jose 
scale, oyster-shell scale and blister-mite; add two pounds 
arsenate of lead to 50 gallons of mixture for bud-moth. 

Summer sprays. 

A. — As blossom buds begin to show pink 

Lime-sulfur (32 degrees Beaume), diluted 1 to 40, for apple 
scab. Add arsenate of lead, 2 pounds to 50 gallons, for bud- 
moth and case-bearers. 

9 



10 FRUIT INSECTS 

B. — As the last of the petals are falling 
Lime-sulfur (32 degrees BeaumS), diluted 1 to 40, for apple 

scab. Add arsenate of lead, two pounds to 50 gallons, for 

codlin-moth. 

This is the most important spray for the control of the 

codlin-moth and should be thoroughly done. 

C. — Three weeks after the petals fall 
Lime-sulfur (32 degrees Beaume), diluted 1 to 40 for apple 
scab. Add arsenate of lead, two pounds to 50 gallons, for 

codlin-moth. 

D. — Last week in July 

Lime-sulfur (32 degrees Beaume), diluted 1 to 40 for apple 
scab. Add arsenate of lead, 2 pounds to 50 gallons, for second 
brood of codlin-moth. 

The Codlin-Moth 

Carpocapsa pomonella Linnaeus 

This is by all odds the most destructive insect enemy of the 
apple. Originally a native of southeastern Europe, it has now 
become nearly cosmopolitan, occurring in all the apple-growing 
regions of the world. It was introduced into New England 
some time before 1750, and spread gradually westward, reach- 
ing Iowa about 1860, Utah in 1870 and California about 1874. 

The amount of injury to the crop varies greatly with the 
climate. In the Northern states and Canada the injury in un- 
protected orchards averages from 25 to 50 per cent of the crop, 
while in the South and in the warmer valleys of some of the far 
Western states losses of from 60 to 95 per cent are not uncom- 
mon. This greater destructiveness of the moth in the South 
is the result of the longer growing season, which permits more 
generations to develop than are possible in the North. The 
larvae of later generations are much more numerous than the 



APPLE INSECTS 



11 




first, and the injury consequently greater. Quaintance in 1909 

estimated the annual loss to the fruit industry of the United 

States from this insect alone at over 

$16,000,000, three fourths of this being 

direct injury to the crop and the other 

one fourth the cost of spraying and 

spray materials. . 

Almost invariably the codlin-moth 
hibernates as a larva in tough silken 
cocoons under loose pieces of bark, in 
crevices in the tree or in near-by fences, 
or in other suitable shelter (Fig. 5). In 
orchards of smooth-barked trees where 
no better place is available they will spin 
their cocoons in cracks in the ground and 
at the base of the trunk. The cocoon is 

. Fig. 5. — Codlin-moth 

rather thin, but quite tough, and is made larva in its cocoon on a 
largely of silk in which are mixed bits of bark - flake (x 2). 
the substance on which it is made. It is lined with white 

silk, and the outside is rendered 
quite inconspicuous by the addi- 
tion of bits of dirt and bark. 
The cocoons of the over-winter- 
ing larvae are thicker and tougher 
than those of the summer broods. 
With the advent of warm 
weather in the spring the larva 
changes to a pupa, usually 
within the old cocoon (Fig. 6), 
but sometimes it may migrate 
to some other portion of the 
trunk and there construct a new 
Usually just before 




Fig. 6. — Codlin-moth pupa in 
cocoon (X 2). 



cocoon. 



pupation the larva will open the 



12 



FRUIT INSECTS 





i^k ' ^ /— s ^rffr !qa 






'■' / 






1 









Fig. 7. 



Codlin-moth, adult, 
photo (X 3). 



Knight 



end of the cocoon and spin a tube of silk out to the sur- 
face, stretching a thin sheath of silk across the opening at the 
ending of the cocoon, which is ruptured when the moth emerges. 
The time spent in the pupal state varies with the climate, but 

averages not far from 
26 or 28 days for the 
spring brood. The 
pupa is about \ inch 
in length and varies ac- 
cording to age from 
yellowish to brown. Its 
back is armed with trans- 
verse rows of minute 
spines, by means of 
which it is able to push 
itself part way out of 
the cocoon just before the moth emerges. 

The adult is a beautiful moth about f inch across the ex- 
panded wings (Figs. 7 and 8). The front wings have the general 
appearance of watered silk, this effect being produced by alter- 
nating irregular lines of 
brown and bluish gray. 
Near the hind angle is a 
large, light brown area 
bounded on the inner 
side by an irregular choc- 
olate brown band and 
crossed by two similar 
bands of a metallic cop- 
pery or golden color in 
certain lights. The hind 

wings are coppery brown, darker towards the margin. The 
sexes are very similar, but the male may be distinguished 
by the presence of an elongate dark area on the underside of 




Fig. 8. — Codlin-moth resting on a small 
apple. Knight photo (X 2|). 



APPLE INSECTS 



13 



the fore wing and a pencil of black hairs on the upper surface 
of the hind wing. The moths continue to emerge for a period 
of several weeks, but the majority appear about a week after 
the petals fall from the apple blossoms, the exact time depend- 
ing on the character of the season. If the weather is warm 
egg-laying begins in 
from 3 to 5 days, but 
if it is cold, the moths 
may remain inactive 
for a long period. The 
average life of the moth 
is about 10 days, and 
each female lays from 
30 to over 100 eggs. 

The glistening, flat, 
oval, scale-like eggs 
(Fig. 9) of the spring generation are laid mostly on the upper 
and under surfaces of the leaves, although a few may be found 
on the fruit and branches. The egg is about ^ inch in diameter, 




Fig. 9. — Two views of the codlin-moth egg- 
shell (X 22 and X 7). 




Fig. 10. — Newly hatched codlin-moth larva (X 44). 

or about half the size of a pinhead. The egg-laying period 
extends over several weeks, as is the case with the emergence of 
the moths, but the majority are laid about two weeks after the 
falling of the petals. The spring brood eggs hatch in 6 to 10 



14 FRUIT INSECTS 

days, while the eggs of the later generations, because of the 
higher temperature, require a much shorter period, 5 or 6 days. 
The time at which the first brood eggs hatch and the young 
larvae enter the fruit is of great importance from the standpoint 
of control, and has been given careful attention by entomologists. 
In spite of many disturbing factors it may be said that in general 
the majority of the eggs hatch about 3 or 4 weeks after the 
petals fall. The newly hatched larvae (Fig. 10) are less than -^ 
inch in length and are of a semitransparent whitish color, with 
a shiny black head and blackish thoracic and anal shields. At 
first they may feed slightly on the foliage, but usually they 
crawl directly to the fruit, which they enter in the majority 

of cases at the blossom end. 
A few enter at the stem end 
and a considerable number 
commence their burrows 
where a leaf or another apple 
touches the surface of the 
fruit. In the case of later 
generations a much greater 
proportion of the larvae en- 
Fig. n. — Full-grown codiin-moth ter at the side, a fact of great 

practical importance. After 
feeding slightly in the calyx cup the larva burrows directly to 
the core, where it devours the seeds and eats out a considerable 
cavity, leaving it partially filled with a filthy mass of excrement 
loosely webbed together with silk (Fig. 12): Larvae of later 
generations entering at the side frequently eat out a small bur- 
row or cavity just beneath the skin before starting the burrow 
towards the core. 

When nearly full grown the larva eats out a new burrow 
directly to the surface but keeps the opening plugged with ex- 
crement until it is ready to leave the fruit (Fig. 14). The time 
spent in the fruit varies considerably, but averages not far from 




APPLE INSECTS 



15 



30 days for the first brood and 3 weeks for the second. The 
full grown larva is about f inch in length, pinkish white in color, 
with the head dark brown and the thoracic and anal shields 
lighter brown (Fig. .11). 

The larger part of the larvae leave the fruit before it falls and 
crawl down the branches until they find a suitable place for 
spinning the cocoon. After making the cocoon the larva may 
do one of two things, either it will remain in the larval condition 
until the following spring or it may change to a pupa in about 
a week. In the latter 
case these summer pupae 
give rise in about 10 days 
to a brood of moths which 
lay the eggs for the second 
generation. In New 
York only part of the 
larvae spinning up before 
August 1 transform the 
same season, all the larvae 
going into cocoons after 
that date hibernate. In 
Arkansas the correspond- 
ing date is September 1. 
Not all the larvae of the 
first broods transform the 
same season even in 
Georgia, where there are three full generations, but they are 
relatively few. 

The number of generations a year varies in different parts 
of the country, and has been a difficult question to solve, owing 
to the overlapping of the broods. The earliest of the first 
brood moths will be on the wing before belated individuals 
of the spring brood have disappeared. It is now, however, 
pretty well determined that in the North, — New England, New 




Fig. 12. 



Codlin-moth larva in its burrow 
in an apple. 



16 



FRUIT INSECTS 



York and Michigan, — there is one full generation and usually 
a partial second, the completeness of the latter depending on 
the length of the season. In Nebraska, Missouri and Virginia 
there are two full generations ; in Arkansas there are three 
and in Georgia three and a partial fourth. In Washington, 
Oregon, Utah and Idaho there are two full generations and 
there is strong evidence that there are at least three in Arizona. 

While the codlin- 
moth is distinctly an 
apple pest, it is also 
an important enemy 
of the pear. In 1898 
Slingerland estimated 
the loss to the pear 
crop in New York at 
$500,000. Wild haws, 
crab apples andquinces 
are also quite freely 
eaten by the larvae. 
In California English 
walnuts are generally 
infested to a slight 
extent by the larvae of 
the later generations. 
It has been reported 
as injuring plums in Canada and also in New Mexico. 
Natural enemies. 

The eggs of the codlin-moth are parasitized by a minute 
chalcis-fly, Trichogramma pretiosa Riley, four of these tiny 
flies having been reared from a single egg. The eggs are also 
attacked by a mite, Trombidium sp. The larva is attacked by 
the hymenopterous parasites, Pimpla annulipes Brulle, 
Macrocentrus delicatus Cress., Ascogaster carpocapsa? Vier., 
Goniozus sp., Bethylus sp., and by two Tachina flies, Hypos- 




Fig. 13. — A wormy apple, showing the mass 
of brown particles thrown out at the blossom 
end by the young larva. 



APPLE INSECTS 



17 



tena variabilis Coq. and Tachinophyto sp. In Georgia a small 
chalcis-fly (Haltichella sp.) has frequently been reared from 
the pupa. A European parasite (Calliephialtes messor Grav.) 
has been introduced into California, but apparently with little 
success. The larvae of a num- 
ber of beetles have been found 
killing the larvae and in the 
South several species of ants at- 
tack the larvae and pupae in the 
cocoons. In Utah a wasp stocks 
its burrows with the larvae. 
Both in this country and in 
Europe larvae have been found 
infested by hair-snakes. 

In spite of this array of insect enemies the codlin-moth is 
able to maintain itself as the most destructive enemy of apples 




Fig. 14. — Exit hole of codlin- 
moth larva ; left, before leaving the 
fruit ; right, after it has emerged and 
pushed away the plug. 





Fig. 15. — Empty codlin-moth cocoons on the under side of a flake of bark; 
view of the outer surface of the same flake showing the holes made by birds in 
reaching the larvae. 

and pears. Its most effective natural enemies are the birds, 
over a dozen species of which are known to feed on it. The 



18 



FRUIT INSECTS 



downy woodpecker, nuthatch and chickadee destroy great 
numbers of the hibernating larvse, under loose flakes of bark. 
In fact, it requires diligent search to find larvae towards spring 
even where empty cocoons are abundant. Usually a tell- 
tale hole through the bark flake into the cocoon explains the 
absence of its occupant (Fig. 15). These birds are such efficient 
aids to man in controlling the codlin-moth that they should 




Fig. 16. — Apple and pear fruits with the calyx lobes still expanded ; the right 
time to make the first spraying for the codlin-moth. 

be carefully protected. During the winter they feed in small 
flocks, going over the same territory day after day, carefully 
examining every portion of the bark for insect food. They 
may be induced to visit an orchard regularly by tying strips 
of beef fat to a few of the branches and the destruction of 
codlin-moth larvse will more than pay for the trouble involved. 

Means of control. 

When single brooded or when the second generation is only 
partial, the codlin-moth has not been found a very difficult 



APPLE INSECTS 



19 



pest to control by spraying with an arsenical poison. In 
the South and portions of the West, however, where two 
or more full generations develop, spraying has in general 
given less satisfactory results. In spraying for this insect 
advantage is taken of the fact that the great majority of 
the young larvae enter the apple at the blossom end. For 
about two weeks after the petals fall the calyx lobes are spread 
wide apart and the young apple stands upright on the stem 





Fig. 17. — Two later stages, the calyx lobes closed ; it is now too late to spray 

effectively. 

with the calyx end directed upward (Fig. 16). If at this time 
an arsenical spray is thoroughly applied with sufficient force 
to drive the poison into the calyx cup, minute particles of the 
poison will be deposited where the young larva will get it in 
his first meal as it enters the fruit. In about two weeks the 
calyx lobes close as shown in Figure 17, and it is then too late 
to spray effectively, for it is then impossible to place the poison 
where it will do the most good. The closed calyx lobes form 



20 FRUIT INSECTS 

a tight roof over the cavity and prevent the rain from washing 
away the poison. To be most effective this first spray should 
be applied as soon as possible after the larger part of the petals 
have fallen. Great care should be taken to hit each apple, the 
spray should be directed downward directly into the blossom 
end of the fruit and sufficient power should be used to give a 
strong spray. In commercial orchards the best results are 
obtained where a good power sprayer is used and where the 
nozzle, on the end of a light extension rod, is handled by a man 
standing on an elevated platform or tower. In the Eastern 
states a fine, mist-like spray is most commonly used, but in 
the Far West remarkable results have been obtained by the 
use of a .coarse driving spray, such as is produced by the Bor- 
deaux nozzle. 

Not all the larvae are killed in the calyx cavity, for quite a 
number always enter the fruit at some other point. A large 
part of these are killed by the poison on the leaves where many 
of them feed slightly before reaching the fruit, while others are 
doubtless destroyed by the poison adhering to the surface of 
the apple, although the number killed in this way is not large. 

This first spraying immediately after the petals fall is the most 
important operation in the fight against the codlin-moth, and 
no pains should be spared to make it as effective as possible. 
Not only does it control the injury by the first brood larvae, but 
it also prevents in large measure the losses occasioned by the 
later broods. In the Far West, where two full broods develop, 
some remarkable results have been obtained from this spraying 
alone when the application was made with great thoroughness, 
using a coarse driving spray and sufficient pressure to place 
the poison deep in the calyx cavity. In some cases as high as 
95 or 99 per cent of the crop has been protected in this way 
without the necessity for any later spraying. Attempts to 
control the codlin-moth in the East by the one-spray method 
have not as yet shown it to be superior to the more common 



APPLE INSECTS 21 

practice under Eastern conditions, where it is necessary to 
make repeated applications of a fungicide for the control of 
apple scab and other fungous diseases, but they have called 
attention to the great importance of doing very thorough work 
with the first spray. 

At the time the first spraying is made the codlin-moth eggs 
have not yet been laid and the majority do not hatch until 
about 3 or 4 weeks later. If about the time of hatching the 
foliage and fruit are thoroughly coated with a fine arsenical 
spray, many of the newly hatched larvae will be killed before 
reaching the apple, since many of the eggs are laid at some 
distance from the fruit and the larvae feed to some extent on 
the leaves. 

In case the first spraying, because of carelessness or for some 
other reason, has not controlled the worms, it may be advisable 
to spray for the second brood. This spraying should be done 
just as the majority of the eggs are hatching. The proper 
time may be determined by banding a few trees with burlap 
bands. When empty cocoons are found beneath them it shows 
that the moths are emerging. Eggs will be hatching in about 
a week or two. In New York the second brood larvae enter 
the fruit in late July and in August, but the exact time varies 
greatly with the season. 

The larvae of the later broods are much more numerous than 
those of the first and the loss which they inflict is correspond- 
ingly greater. Where the first spraying has been neglected 
one cannot hope to protect his crop by spraying for the second 
brood alone. But where the first brood has been reduced to 
a minimum by a thorough early spraying much good can 
oftentimes be accomplished by a later spraying to destroy the 
progeny of the few stragglers missed earlier in the season. 

Paris green has been for years the standard poison used 
against the codlin-moth, but it has now been almost entirely 
replaced by arsenate of lead. The latter has, on the whole, 



22 FRUIT INSECTS 

given better results. It sticks better to the foliage and fruit, 
contains practically no free arsenic and may be combined with 
the dilute lime-sulfur, as used for the apple scab. One pound 
of Paris green or 4 to 6 pounds of arsenate of lead in 100 gallons 
of water has, in general, given the best results. Paris green or 
arsenate of lead may be combined with Bordeaux mixture and 
arsenate of lead with lime-sulfur, but Paris green has proved 
injurious to the foliage when used with the latter. Success 
in controlling the codlin-moth does not depend so much on 
the kind of poison used as on the thoroughness and timeliness 
of the application. The personal factor is of the greatest 
importance. 

At picking time many infested apples are carried to the 
packing shed or storehouse, where the larvae emerge and spin 
up in cracks and crevices. In case the storehouse is near the 
orchard the windows should be screened to prevent the escape 
of the moths the following spring. 

Before the discovery of the arsenical method of controlling 
the codlin-moth banding the trunks with strips of burlap was 
widely practiced. These bands are put around the trunk and 
larger branches, and beneath them a large proportion of the 
larvae will spin their cocoons. They should be examined and 
the larvae killed regularly every week during the cocooning 
season. It is generally believed that in properly sprayed 
orchards the use of bands will not pay for the trouble and 
expense involved. 

References 

Howard, Rept. U. S. Dept. Agr. for 1887, pp. 88-115. 

Cornell Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 142. 1898. Extensive bibliography. 

U. S. Bur. Ent. Bull. 41. 1903. 

Utah Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 87. 1904. 

Utah Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 95. 1906. 

Wash. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 77. 1906. 

N. M. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 65. 1907. 

111. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 114. 1907. 



APPLE INSECTS 



23 



Quaintance, Year. Book U, S. Dept. Agr. for 1907, pp. 435-450. 1908. 
N. H. Agr. Exp. Sta., 19th and 20th Rept., pp. 396-498. 1908. 
U. S. Bur. Ent. Bull. 80, Pt. I. 1909. 
Mo. State Fruit Exp. Sta. Bull. 21. 1909. 
Ga. State Bd. Ent. Bull. 29. 1909. 

Felt, 25th Rept. N. Y. St. Ent. pp. 25-71. 1910. Extensive bibliog- 
raphy. 
U. S. Bur. Ent. Bull. 80, Pt. V. 1910. 
U. S. Bur. Ent. Bull. 80, Pt. VI. 1910. 
Ont. Dept. Agr. Bull. 187. 1911. 
Wash. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 103. 1911. 
U. S. Bur. Ent. Bull. 97, Pt. II. 1911. 
Felt, Jour. Ec. Ent. V, pp. 153-159. 1912. 
U. S. Bur. Ent. Bull. 115, Pts. I, II. 1912. 



The Lesser Apple Worm 



Enarmonia prunivora Walsh 

This insect is closely related to the codlin-moth, and both 
in its life history and the nature of its injury to the apple is very 
similar to that insect. Originally described by Walsh in 1867 
as a plum pest, it has 
more recently shown 
itself a serious enemy 
of the apple in cer- 
tain localities. It is 
generally distributed 
throughout the East- 
ern states from Texas 
and Georgia north- 
ward to Ontario and 
Quebec and also oc- 
curs in British Co- 
lumbia. 

The f ull-ffrown FlQ " 18- — ~ U PP er fi g ure - Partly grown codlin- 

° moth larva ; lower two, larvae of the lesser apple 

larvae are about f worm (x 6). 




24 



FRUIT INSECTS 




inch in length, and pinkish or nearly 
white in color (Fig. 18). They leave 
the fruit in the fall a little later than 
the codlin-moth larvae and spin cocoons 
in similar situations ; occasionally pu- 
pation occurs within the apple itself 
(Fig. 20). The larva may be distin- 
guished from that of the codlin-moth 
by its smaller size, and by having a 
brownish, comb-like structure on the 
caudal curvature of the anal plate visible 
only under a 

Fig. 19. — Cocoon of the f i 

lesser apple worm with Strong lens, 
empty pupa skin protrud- The CO- 

ing(x7) - coon is 

about | inch long, lined with white 

silk and covered on the outside with 

bits of bark and dirt (Fig. 19). The 

following spring the larva changes 

to a brownish pupa less than J inch 

in length. The dorsal surface is 

armed with transverse rows of short 

spines by which the pupa works itself 

part way out of the cocoon before the emergence of the moth. 

The empty pupa case is usually left attached to the cocoon. 
The moth (Fig. 21) measures about T 7 e inch across the expanded 

wings. The front 
wings have the gen- 
eral appearance of 
watered silk when 
viewed with the un- 
aided eye. The gen- 
eral color is a warm 

Fig. 21. — Lesser apple worm moth (X 5). brown, darker On the 




Fig. 20. — Empty pupa skin 
of lesser worm protruding from 
end of small apple. 




APPLE INSECTS 



25 



front margin and at the tip and lighter towards the base. 
Under a lens it is seen that this effect is produced by groups 
of scales of three shades of brown; reddish, chocolate and 
light brown ; in addition the wing is crossed by three fine in- 
terrupted irregular pearl-blue lines, the basal one being double 
in front. The hind wings are brown, paler towards the base. 

The moths emerge and eggs are laid at about the same time 
as those of the codlin- 
moth. The eggs are 
glistening milky 
white, flat and scale- 
like, and closely re- 
semble those of the 
codlin-moth, but are 
only a little more than 
one half as large. 
They hatch in 5 or 6 
days. 

The injury caused 
by this insect has 
often been confused 
with the work of the 
codlin-moth. Many 
of the young larvae 
enter the fruit through the calyx cavity, while others bore 
through the skin just outside the calyx, and still others enter 
at the side and near the stem. A larger proportion of the first 
brood enter at the calyx than is the case with the second genera- 
tion. In general, the burrows are not so deep as those of the 
codlin-moth. The larva remains near the surface and eats 
out a blotched mine just beneath the skin which turns whitish 
and greatly disfigures the fruit (Fig. 22). 

In the North there are two generations annually ; in the Ozark 
region there are three and sometimes a partial fourth brood. 




Fig. 



22. — Work of lesser apple worm at the 
blossom end of a mature apple. 



26 FRUIT INSECTS 

Many of the first brood larvae pupate in the fruit and the empty 
pupa case is frequently found protruding from the burrow. 
Apples infested by small larvae are frequently placed in storage 
where they continue to feed and often cause considerable loss. 

The lesser apple worm moth has also been reared from plum, 
from black-knot, a fungous swelling on plum branches, and from 
certain insect galls on elm and oak. 

Remedial measures. 

The treatment suggested for this insect is the same as that 
for the codlin-moth, except that there is especial need of mak- 
ing the second spraying, 3 to 4 weeks after the petals fall, very 
thorough. To kill the young larvae entering at the stem and side 
at that time the foliage and fruit should be thoroughly coated 
with a fine arsenical spray. 

References 

U. S. Bur. Ent. Bull. 68, Pt. V. 1908. 
Taylor, Jour. Ee. Ent., II, pp. 237-239. 1909. 
U. S. Bur. Ent. Bull. 80, Pt. III. 1909. 



Apple Fruit-miner 

Argyresthia conjugella Zeller 

The larva of this small Tineid moth is a serious pest in the 
apple orchards of western Canada. It also occurs in northern 
Europe, where it frequently destroys the entire apple crop. In 
Europe it originally fed on the berries of the Mountain Ash 
and in Canada on the fruit of the Wild Crab (Pyrus fused) 
but it has now become thoroughly established on the culti- 
vated apple. In England and Scandinavia it has been found 
infesting the cherry. 

The injury is caused by the pinkish white larva, about | 
inch in length, which burrows in all directions through the 
fruit during July, August and September. The tissue around 



APPLE INSECTS 



27 



the burrows turns brown, decay ensues and the apple is ruined. 
The parent moth (Fig. 23) has a spread of nearly \ inch ; the 
front wings are iridescent purplish gray mottled with brownish ; 
on the front margin is a row of minute white and brown dots 
and a larger oblique white mark occurs near the apex ; on the 
hind margin is a broad creamy-white band interrupted near the 
middle by a brownish spot. The moths appear in May and 
June. The eggs. are unknown. 

The young larvae enter the fruit at the side and on becoming 
full-grown leave the apple and seek shelter under the bark on 
the trunk or under leaves on the ground. The winter is passed 




Fig. 23. — The apple fruit-miner moth (X 7\). 

in the pupal state in white cocoons, the outer layers of which are 
loose and have the threads arranged so as to form a beautiful 
openwork pattern. 

Remedial measures. 

Satisfactory methods of control have not yet been devised, but 
several thorough sprayings with arsenate of lead, so applied 
as to keep the fruit coated with the poison, would doubtless do 
much to lessen the injury. 



References 

Rept. Exp. Farms Ottawa 1896, pp. 258-262, 1897. 
Rept. Exp. Farms Ottawa 1897, pp. 201-202, 1898. 
Reh, Prakt. Ratg. Obst- und Gartenbau, XXII, pp. 452, 453. 



1907. 



28 



FRUIT INSECTS 



The Apple Red Bugs 



Heterocordylus malinus Reuter, and Lygidea mendax Reuter 

These two native sucking plant-bugs have in recent years 

caused considerable injury in certain orchards in New York 

and New Jersey by 
puncturing the young 
apples during May 
and early June. 
Many of the punc- 
tured apples fall to 
the ground, others 
dry up on the tree, 
while the remainder 
mature but are badly 
deformed and ren- 
dered unmarketable 
(Figs. 24 and 25). 
Red bug injury may 
be distinguished from 
the work of the plum 
curculio by the fact 

that in making the puncture the insect does not remove any of the 

tissue, but merely 

sucks out the juices. 

When abundant 

the apple aphis fre- 

quently causes 

knotty and mis- 
shapen apples, but 

its work is usually 

characterized by a FlG . 2 5. — Young apples which dropped prematurely 
Stunting Or pucker- as a result of red bug injury. 




Fig. 24. 



Mature apple deformed by red bug 
punctures. 




APPLE INSECTS 



29 




Fig. 26. 



Red bug nymph feeding on a newly set 
apple. Much enlarged. 



ing of the blossom 

end which is not 

present in typical 

red bug injury. 
The life histories 

of the two species 

are very similar. 

The dull whitish, 

strongly curved, 

slightly compressed 

eggs are inserted 

their full length 

into the bark on the 

smaller branches 

(Figs. 27 and 28). 

They hatch soon after the opening of the leaves of the fruit 

buds and the minute, tomato-red nymphs at once begin to 

puncture the tender 
leaves. The clusters of 
minute reddish dots 
caused by these punc- 
tures are quite conspicu- 
ous and are usually the 
first indication of the 
presence of the nymphs. 
The injury to the foliage 
is very slight. They 
may feed on the leaves 
until full grown but usu- 
ally attack the fruit as soon as it sets (Fig. 26). 

In the case of very small apples, the four sharp 

bristles of the beak penetrate cniite to the center, 

the surrounding tissue becomes discolored and hardened and 

the apple is ruined. 




Fig. 27. — Eggs of H. ma- 
linus inserted in a slit in the 
bark at the base of a fruit spur. 




Fig. 28: — 
Eggs of L. 
mendax inlen- 
ticels on a 
two-year- old 
apple branch. 



30 



FRUIT INSECTS 




Fig. 29. 



- Fifth stage nymph of H. 
malinus (X 9). 



The young nymphs of the two species are very similar. Those 
of L. mendax may be distinguished by their brighter red color, 

the absence of dusky 
markings on the thorax 
and by having the body 
clothed with fine short 
black hairs. Both species 
pass through five im- 
mature stages and attain 
wings at the fifth molt 
(Figs. 29 and 30). The 
adults of both species are 
about J inch in length. 
In H. malinus (Fig. 31) 
the general color varies 
from red to nearly black 
and the entire dorsal sur- 
face is sparsely clothed with conspicuous white, flattened, scale- 
like hairs. In L. mendax (Fig. 32) the general color is lighter and 
these hairs are lacking. 
As far as we have ob- 
served Greenings, Pound 
Sweets and Spies, in the 
order named, are the 
varieties most subject to 
attack. Sometimes the 
whole crop is rendered 
unmarketable, but such 
severe injury is unusual. 
Remedial measures. 
It has been found im- 
practicable to attempt to 
destroy either the eggs or 
the adults. The former 




Fig. 30. 



- Fifth stage nymph of L. 
mendax (X 9). 






APPLE INSECTS 



31 




\ 






w 




M 


II 






Q 




■■s.igi 


¥ / 



are inserted in the bark where the embryo develops some 
distance from the surface; the latter are relatively few and 

occur when the trees 
are in full foliage, 
when it would be 
very difficult to hit 
them. Attempts to 
"M' destroy the young 

«*^ nymphs by spraying 

with kerosene emul- 
sion or whale-oil soap 
have not been suc- 
cessful, but fairly 
good results have 
been obtained by the 
use of " Black Leaf 40" tobacco extract, one pint in 100 gallons 
of water, applied very thoroughly just before the blossoms open. 
Sometimes a second application, just after the falling of the 
petals, may be found necessary. " Black Leaf 40 " can be 
used with the lime-sulfur as used for a summer spray. When 
used with water add 4 to 5 pounds of soap to make the mixture 
stick and spread better. The spraying should be done on bright 
warm days, for in cool weather many of the nymphs hide away 
in the opening leaves. 

Reference 
Cornell Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 291. 1911. 



Fig. 31. — H. ma- 

linus, adult (X3f). 



Fig. 32. — L. mendax, 
adult (><3f). 



The Apple Maggot 



Rhagoletis pomonella Walsh 

This native American insect, although originally feeding in 
the fruit of the wild thorn, has during the past sixty years be- 
come a serious enemy of the apple in the Eastern states and 



32 



FRUIT INSECTS 



Canada. While summer and early fall varieties are particularly 
subject to attack, winter apples are also sometimes badly in- 
fested. Sweet and 
subacid varieties are 
most susceptible, but 
such acid varieties as 
Greening, Baldwin 
and Oldenburg are 
sometimes attacked. 
In the Lake Cham- 




Fig. 33. — Full-grown apple maggot, side view(x 7). 




Fig. 34. — Full-grown apple maggot, ventral view. 



plain region the Fameuse is very subject to injury, and in 
western New York and Canada crab apples are sometimes 
badly infested. 

Theinjury is caused 
by a whitish maggot, 
J inch or more in 
length, which bur- 
rows in all directions 
through the fruit 
(Figs. 33 and 34). 
In the Northern states, the parent flies appear in early July 
and continue abundant well into September. The females do 

not begin egg-laying till 
two or three weeks after 
emergence. During this 
time they may be seen 
resting on the leaves or 
fruit and lapping up 
drops of moisture, or 
licking the surface of the 
waxy covering of the 
Fig. 35. -Apple maggot fly ( X 4f). fruit with their fleshy 

proboscis. They are blackish, two-winged flies with the head and 
legs yellowish ; the abdomen has three or four transverse white 




APPLE INSECTS 



33 





Fig. 36. 



— Apple maggot pu- 
paria (X 7). 



bands and the wings are crossed by four dark confluent bands 
(Fig. 35) . They are slightly smaller than the house fly, which 
they closely resemble in shape (Fig. 37). The female is pro- 
vided with a sharp ovipositor with 
which she punctures the skin of the 
apple, usually on the side, and in- 
serts her minute, whitish, elongate 
egg directly into the pulp. The eggs 
hatch in from two to six days. On 
hatching the young maggots start 
their tunnels through the flesh but 
grow very slowly until the fruit be- 
gins to ripen or soften from decay 
(Fig. 38). When this occurs the maggots grow rapidly, and 
by their winding burrows soon reduce the interior to a brownish, 
sponge-like mass. It frequently happens that at picking time 

the fruit may show no signs of 
infestation, only to go down sud- 
denly from maggot attack after 
having softened in storage or in 
transit. This is very likely to 
happen in the case of Fameuse 
and Mackintosh when grown in 
infested localities. Sometimes 
the burrows run for some dis- 
tance just beneath the skin, 
showing through as darkened 
trails, from which the insect has 
received, in some localities, the 
name of railroad worm. When 
full-grown, the larva escapes 
through a ragged opening in the skin of the fruit, usually after 
it has fallen, and then as a rule burrows an inch or so into 
the soil, where it hibernates in a brownish puparium (Fig. 36), 



/ 




Fig. 37. — Apple maggot fly resting 
on an apple ( X 2) . 



34 



FRUIT INSECTS 



which has been aptly likened to a grain of wheat. In New 
York, at least, there is a partial second brood of flies appearing 
in September. 

Remedial measures. 

As the eggs are inserted directly into the pulp beneath 
the skin of the fruit, and as the maggots never leave 
the apple until full-grown, it is impossible to kill them 




Fig. 38. — Apples infested with apple maggot beginning to decay. 



with any poison or contact spray. The flies, however, can be 
readily destroyed by having the fruit and leaves covered with 
an arsenate of lead spray at the time of their emergence in early 
July. As stated above, the flies do not begin oviposition until 
three or four weeks after emergence ; during this time they feed 
considerably on the waxy covering of the fruit and lap up drops 
of moisture from the fruit and foliage. Experiments in New 
York have shown that if the trees are sprayed the first week in 



APPLE INSECTS 35 

July with arsenate of lead, 4 pounds in 100 gallons of water, most 
of the flies will be killed. It has been suggested that the addi- 
tion of molasses or sirup to the poison spray would make it more 
attractive to the flies, but the experience of the majority of 
commercial growers indicates that this is unnecessary. When 
orchards are well cultivated, so as to give a minimum of pro- 
tection to the puparia through the winter, and when a good sys- 
tem of spraying is practiced, the apple maggot is not troublesome. 
It is probable that under these conditions most of the flies are 
killed by the arsenate of lead used for the control of the codlin- 

moth. 

References 

Maine Agr. Exp. Sta., Ann. Rept., 1889, pp. 190-241. 

Maine Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 109. 1904. 

R. I. Agr. Exp. Sta., Ann. Rept., 1904, pp. 191-201. 

U. S. Bur. Ent, Cire. 101, 1908. 

Cornell Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 324. 1912. 



The Apple Curculio 

Anthonomus quadrigibbus Say 

Apples are subject to attack by three species of weevils 
which are, in the order of their importance, the plum curculio, 
the apple curculio and the apple weevil. The first will be 
discussed in detail under plum insects (page 243). 

The apple curculio is generally distributed over the Eastern 
states and Canada, where it breeds abundantly in wild crab 
and thorn apples. As an apple pest its work has often been 
confused with that of the plum curculio, for the two species 
usually work together and deform the fruit in a similar manner. 

It has come into prominence principally in Missouri and 
southern Illinois, and as a rule only in connection with destruc- 
tive outbreaks of the plum curculio. Conditions favoring the 
presence of the one seem also to favor the abundance of the 



36 FRUIT INSECTS 

other. Usually the apple curculios are greatly in the minority, 
and their presence serves merely to supplement the injuries 
inflicted by the other species. In Connecticut this species has 
been recorded as seriously injuring young peach trees by punc- 
turing the twigs. 

The apple curculio is a reddish-brown snout beetle, and may 
be distinguished from its relatives by having four distinct humps 
on the posterior declivity of the wing covers, two on each side 
(Fig. 39). The thorax is usually striped with three ash-gray 
lines and the front part of the wing covers are more or less 
grayish. The female is about \ inch in length, the male a little 

smaller. The beak is over 
one half the length of the 
body in the female, is slightly 
curved downward and carried 
projecting obliquely forward 
and does not hang down like 
an elephant's trunk as in the 

Fig. 39. — The apple curculio ( X 4). plum Curculio. 

The beetles hibernate in 
grass, under rubbish and in other sheltered places, and ap- 
pear on the trees soon after the petals fall. They begin 
to feed on the young apples as soon as they are as large 
as small peas, and the female begins egg-laying soon after. 
In feeding the beetle punctures the skin of the apple by 
means of the small jaws at the tip of the beak and then eats 
out a cylindrical cavity in the pulp as deep as the length of the 
beak. Growth is stopped around the puncture, the surround- 
ing tissue hardens and a knotty deformity results. 

The cavity excavated by the female for the reception of the 
egg is similar to the one made in feeding but is considerably 
enlarged at the bottom. After placing the oval white or yellow- 
ish egg, yV inch in length, at the bottom of the cavity the female 
seals up the small external opening with a drop of excrement. 




APPLE INSECTS 37 

In feeding and in excavating the egg-cavity very little of the 
skin is swallowed ; it is merely torn back out of the way. This 
is one reason why it is so difficult to kill the beetles with an 
arsenical spray. 

In southern Illinois oviposition extends from late May to 
about the middle of July, and the average number of eggs laid 
by each female is about 65. The eggs hatch in four or five 
days and the larva feeds on the pulp, becoming full-grown in 
about 20 days. When full-grown it is nearly one half inch in 
length, footless, and owing to the enlargement of certain seg- 
ments on the back is so strongly curved that it is unable to 
straighten out. It pupates within the cavity in which it has 
fed and in about one week the beetle emerges. The new brood 
of beetles, unlike the plum curculio, feed very little, but go into 
hibernation by the first of August. 

Remedial measures. 

Spraying with an arsenical as is practiced for the codlin- 
moth will destroy a small percentage of the apple curculios, 
but extensive experiments in Illinois have shown that addi- 
tional applications for the curculios do not kill enough to pay 
for the expense incurred. Curculios thrive in overgrown, 
crowded, unpruned and uncultivated orchards, and may best 
be controlled by remedying these conditions. The trees should 
be pruned so as to admit as much sunlight as practicable, the 
ground should be kept free from weeds and the trees should not 
be so close together as to shade the entire ground. A large 
proportion of the infested apples drop and the insect completes 
its development in the fallen fruit. It is necessary, however, 
that the fruit remain in the shade, since even a few hours of 
direct sunlight is fatal to both larvae and pupae. Where the 
ground has been kept clean and smooth it will pay to rake the 
windfalls out into the sun, where they will dry up. This should 
be done early in the season, for great numbers of curculios 
develop in small apples not larger than a pea. Wild thorn 



38 



FRUIT INSECTS 



apples in hedges and wood lots adjoining orchards serve as cen- 
ters of infestation, and should be destroyed. Grassy borders 
and driveways, and particularly stone fences and stone piles 
serve as excellent hibernating quarters for the beetles. Clean 
orcharding is the most effective preventive of curculio attacks. 

References 

Riley, 3d Mo. Rept. pp. 29-35. 1871. 

111. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 98. 1905. 

W. Va. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 126. 1910. 



The Apple Weevil 

Pseudanthonomus cratcegi Walsh 

While generally distributed over the eastern United States, 
this weevil has been reported as injuring apples only in West 

Virginia. Walsh in 1866 
reared the beetle from a 
Cecidomyiid gall on the wild 
thorn. 

The beetle is much smaller 
than the species last treated, 
being only T V inch in length. 
It is of a uniform light brown 
color and has the wing covers 
deeply striated but without 
humps or tubercles of any kind (Fig. 40) . The beetles emerge from 
hibernation in early spring. They feed on the foliage more or 
less throughout the season, but their principal food is the pulp 
of the fruit, which they obtain through minute punctures made 
in the skin. 

The minute, yellowish-white oval eggs are deposited in 
cavities in the pulp eaten out by the females. The opening of 
the cavity is then sealed with a drop of excrement. The eggs 




Fig. 40. — The apple weevil (X 15). 



APPLE INSECTS 39 

hatch in 4. or 5 days, and the yellowish-white footless grub 
eats out a winding burrow in the fruit or may form a large 
irregular feeding chamber. The grubs are unable to develop 
in apples that continue to grow, being killed in many cases by 
the pressure of the proliferating plant cells. Under favorable 
conditions they become full-grown, and pupate in about 30 days 
on the average. The eggs are often laid in decaying fruit, and 
as many as 20 beetles have been reared from a single apple, 
although 4 or 5 is the more usual number. The pupae occupy 
cells inside the fruit, and in a little over a week transform to 
beetles. The beetles remain about the trees during the re- 
mainder of the season, going into hibernation at the approach 
of cold weather. There is only one generation a year. 

Remedial treatment. 

The fact that the beetles feed more or less on the foliage makes 
it possible to kill them by spraying with arsenate of lead applied 
as for the codlin-moth. It has been shown in West Virginia 
that when the trees are treated in this way the injurious work 
of this weevil is completely prevented. 

Reference 
W. Va. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 126. 1910. 

The Green Fruit-worms 

Xylina antennata Walker 
Xylina laticinerea Grote 
Xylina grotei Riley 

While very widely distributed throughout the United States 
and Canada, these three very closely related species have only 
occasionally attracted attention by their attacks on apples and 
other fruits. They caused considerable loss in Illinois and 
Missouri in 1870 and in New York in 1877, 1896 and 1913. 



40 



FRUIT INSECTS 




Fig. 41. 



Green fruit-worms feeding on 
young apples. 



They are more frequently- 
found feeding on foliage of 
various forest trees, notably 
poplar, soft maple, hickory, 
wild cherry and boxelder. 
In addition to the apple they 
also attack the fruit of the 
pear, peach, plum, apricot, 
quince and currant. The 
green fruit-worms are large, 
light yellowish or apple green 
caterpillars (Fig. 41), with a 
narrow cream-colored stripe 
down the middle of the back, 
a wide cream-colored stripe along each side and many similarly 
colored mottlings or spots which sometimes form quite distinct 
stripes along the body above the broad lateral stripes. When 
fully grown they range from one to one and a half 
inches in length. They work during May and the 
first half of June. When young they feed upon the 
foliage or buds so that when the fruit is large enough 
for them to eat they are found to be about half 
grown. The caterpillars do not bore into the fruit, 
but usually begin eating on one side and often con- 
tinue feeding until nearly half of the fruit is eaten. 
They go from fruit to fruit, one caterpillar thus 
ruining several fruits ; in some orchards they have 
been known to destroy over a quarter of the crop. 
If the cavity eaten in the apple is not too large, it 
may heal over, leaving a light brown corky scar. Pupa of the 
The green fruit-worms do most of their damage to green fruit * 

,, „ ., . _ .. . ° worm. 

the young fruits in May, but some of them continue 

working until nearly the middle of June. During the first 

week in June most of the caterpillars get their full growth 




APPLE INSECTS 



41 




Fig. 



43. — Green fruit- worm moth, X. 
antennata (X If). 



and burrow into the soil beneath the trees to a depth of from 
one to three inches. Here they roll and twist their bodies 
about until a smooth 
earthen cell is formed. 
Most of them then 
spin about them- 
selves a very thin 
silken cocoon ; some 
spin no cocoon. Soon 
after building the 
cocoon or earthen 
cell the caterpillar 
transforms to a dark 

brown pupa (Fig. 42). In about three months, or about the 
middle of September, the moths (Fig. 43) emerge and go into 
hibernation in sheltered nooks; some of the pupae, however, 
do not transform till early the following spring. The moths 

appear on the trees in March or April, and 
deposit their nearly globular, distinctly 
ridged, yellowish eggs singly on the bark 
of the smaller branches (Fig. 44). 
Means of control. 

As the green fruit-worms are about half 
grown when they begin feeding on the fruit 
it is then a very difficult matter to kill 
them with a poison spray. Earlier, when 
feeding on the buds and newly opened leaves, 
many of the young worms could doubtless 
be destroyed by a thorough application of 
5 or 6 pounds in 100 gallons of water 




Fig. 44. — Green 
fruit- worm egg on 
apple twig, greatly 
enlarged. 



arsenate of lead, 

or dilute lime-sulfur solution. 



Reference 
Cornell Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 123. 1896. 



CHAPTER III 
APPLE INSECTS — BUDS AND FOLIAGE 

The Bud-moth 

Tmetocera ocellana Schiffermiiller 

This is one of the most numerous, destructive, and wide- 
spread of the insects attacking the opening buds of fruit trees. 
It is a European insect which has been ravaging American 
orchards for nearly a century, and is now more or less injurious 
yearly from Nova Scotia through Canada and the northern 
half of the United States to Oregon and Washington. Infested 
nursery stock is the principal source of new infestations. 
Working in the opening buds, it often " nips in the bud " a 
prospective crop of fruit, and it is especially destructive on 
recently budded or grafted trees and nursery stock. It more 
commonly infests apple trees, but pear, plum, cherry, quince, 
and peach* trees and blackberry bushes are also attacked and 
sometimes seriously injured. 

The half -grown, dark brown, black-headed caterpillars 
hibernate in obscure little silken hibernacula on the bark of 
the twigs, usually near the buds. Early in the spring, or as soon 
as the buds begin to open in April or May, these caterpillars 
leave their hibernating quarters and get into the opening buds 
(Fig. 45) , where they feed upon the central expanding leaves and 
flowers, tying them together with silken threads. The petiole 
of one of the leaves is often nearly severed, and the edge of 
the wilting leaf is then rolled into a tube lined sparsely with silk 

42 



APPLE INSECTS — BUDS AND FOLIAGE 



43 




in which the caterpillar lives for 6 or 7 weeks, 
going out to feed mostly at night. It often 
draws other leaves toward it and fastens them, 
thus forming a sort of nest. Some of the partly 
eaten leaves soon turn brown, thus rendering 
the work of the insect quite conspicuous. Where 
terminal buds are attacked the caterpillar some- 
times burrows down the shoot for 2 or 3 inches, 
causing it to die. 

The mature, nearly naked caterpillar is about 
half an inch in length, and of a cinnamon- 
brown color, with the head, thoracic shield 
and true legs black. Becoming full-grown in 
June, the caterpillars transform, and ten days 
are spent as brown pupa? in silken lined cocoons 
formed of leaves either rolled or tied together 
in the nests. The moths emerge over a period 
of six weeks, from June 5 to July 15 in New 
York. The dark ash-gray moths, with a broad, 
cream-white band across the front wings, which have an ex- 
panse of f of an inch, are night- flyers and closely mimic the 

bark when at rest 
(Fig. 46). A few 
days after emerging, 
the females lay mi- 
nute, flattened, disk- 
like, oval, nearly 
transparent, smooth 
eggs either singly or 
in small overlapping 
clusters on the leaves 

Fig. 46. — Bud-moth. Knight photo (X 4). (Fig. 47). In a Week 

or ten days a little black-headed, greenish caterpillar hatches, 
makes a silken tube open at both ends and sallies forth to feed 



Fig. 45. — 
Opening apple 
bud infested with 
a bud-moth cat- 
erpillar, showing 
the brownish 
particles thrown 
out at the tip by 
the larva. 




44 



FRUIT INSECTS 




Fig. 47. 
moth. 



- Eggs of the bud- 
Greatly enlarged. 



upon the skin and inner tissues of the leaf, usually on the under- 
side along the midrib. A thin protecting layer of silk is spun 

over their feeding grounds, and the 
skeletonized portion of the leaf soon 
turns brown. Oftentimes when 
working on the underside of a leaf 
that touches an apple the little cat- 
erpillar eats into the fruit in several 
places, causing a blemish in the 
mature apple as shown in Figure 48. 
Most of this injury is usually at- 
tributed to the summer brood of 
codlin-moth larvae. Turning brown 
in color in a day or two, the little 
caterpillars continue to feed on the leaves during July, August 
and a part of September, molting 3 or 4 times and getting about 
half grown. Some of them leave the foliage and go into winter 
quarters on the twigs early in 
August. Before the leaves drop 
all are snugly tucked away in their 
very obscure silken winter homes 
about J of an inch in length and 
covered with bits of dirt or some- 
times made under a convenient 
piece of dead bud scale. There 
is thus but a single brood of the 
bud-moth annually. 

Five little parasites work upon 
this insect in Europe, and at least 
three parasites (Phytodietus vul- 
garis, Pimpla sp. and Microdus 
laticinctus) help considerably to 
check it in America. Birds also get some of the brown cat- 
erpillars, and a large muddauber wasp, Odynerus catskillensis, 




Fig. 48. — Apple injured by 
young bud-moth caterpillars in 
August. 



APPLE INSECTS — BUDS AND FOLIAGE 45 

sometimes stores its cells with them to serve as delicious 
morsels for its baby grubs when they hatch. 

Remedial treatments. 

This bud-moth is a difficult insect to control. In nurseries or 
young orchards it is often practicable to go over the trees in 
May, when the " nests " are rendered quite conspicuous by 
one or two brown, dead leaves, and either pick off and destroy 
the nests, or crush them on the trees with the fingers so as to kill 
the inclosed caterpillars or pupae. Skillful and thorough work 
with a poison spray will also control the bud-moth. Make two 
applications of arsenate of lead, 4 pounds in 100 gallons of water ; 
the first when the flower clusters first appear, and the second just 
before the blossoms open. Many growers add the poison to the 
lime-sulfur used against the scale and blister-mite, making the 
application just as the tips of the buds begin to show green, and 
thus avoid a separate spraying for the bud-moth. Recent ex- 
periments, however, have shown that this early application of 
the poison has little effect. If these applications are thoroughly 
made and followed by the spraying usually given for the codlin- 
moth just after the blossoms drop, this pest can be effectually 

controlled. 

References 

Cornell Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 50. 1893. 

Cornell Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 107, pp. 57-66. 1896. 

The Fringed-wing Apple Bud-moth 

Holcocera maligemmella Murtfeldt 

Since about 1895 the light, greenish-yellow caterpillars, 
about J of an inch long with a black head and thoracic shield, 
of this satiny, brownish-buff Tineid moth have been more or 
less injurious in apple orchards in western Missouri and adjoin- 
ing states. The moths, which measure across expanded wings 
about f of an inch, emerge from the ground early in April, lay 



46 FRUIT INSECTS 

their light yellow, oval, roughened eggs singly in the opening 
buds, and in a week or two the caterpillars appear. They fasten 
together some of the expanding leaves, feed within and work 
their way down into the center of the base of the open flower 
and leaf buds and developing shoots, often causing them to break 
off near the base. Thus the growth of the shoot is stopped, the 
terminal leaves killed and the prospective crop of fruit destroyed. 

In about four weeks the caterpillars get their growth, crawl 
into the ground an inch or two, transform in a delicate, white, 
silken cocoon through tiny, brown pupae to the moths which 
appear about the middle of July and lay eggs on the leaves for a 
second but less destructive brood of caterpillars which work 
in and kill the terminal leaves and buds on the new shoots. 
Becoming full-grown late in August, the caterpillars transform 
to pupae in the ground and hibernate in that stage. 

To control this fringed-wing apple bud-moth requires the 

most thorough work with a poison spray before the blossoms 

open, beginning just as soon as any green shows on the buds. 

Three applications of Paris green (1 pound in 100 gallons, with 3 

pounds lime) have given good results. Two thorough sprayings 

with arsenate of lead before blossoming would doubtless prove 

equally effective. 

Reference 

Mo. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 42. 1898. 

The Apple Bud-worm 

Exartema malanum Fernald 

This insect first attracted attention as an apple pest in 
northern Illinois in 1881, and has rarely been injurious since. 
The young caterpillars or bud-worms hatching from eggs laid 
singly on the terminal buds, are yellowish-white T tinged with 
pink or green. They devour the buds, then forming sort of a 
burrow by fastening a lower leaf -stalk to the branch ; they feed 



APPLE INSECTS — BUDS AND FOLIAGE 47 

upon this leaf and the newly formed wood, sometimes burrowing 
into it a short distance. In a short time this burrow is deserted, 
and the caterpillar, now of a dark flesh color, with polished 
black head and cervical shield, constructs a short, yellowish, 
woolly tube or case on the leaves, from which it sallies forth to 
another. When full-grown in June the caterpillars are about 
\ an inch long, and they transform in their cases to the adult 
insect, a Tortricid moth. There is but one brood annually. 
The front wings of the moth expand about \ an inch, and at the 
base and tip of each there is a large grayish-brown spot, those 
at the base being darker and the others mottled with white ; be- 
tween these spots the wings are white, with silvery reflections. 

The tips of infested branches die back to the base of the first 
perfect leaf, and the trees present a blasted appearance. Apple 
trees only are attacked by this bud-worm, and it has a relentless 
enemy in the form of the small parasitic fly, Microdus eari- 
noides. 

As their work on the terminal buds and leaves is quite con- 
spicuous, many of the young caterpillars can be destroyed in 
their burrows by pruning off and burning the infested tips. 
Later, in June, when they are feeding from their woolly cases 
on the leaves, a poison spray would prove an effective treatment. 



The Cigar-case-bearer 

Coleophora fletcherella Fernald 

About 1890 this interesting little case-bearer first appeared in 
injurious numbers in apple, pear and plum orchards in New 
York and Canada, where it continues to do more or less damage 
each year. It has been reported from New Mexico, Montana, 
Maine and British Columbia, where it was doubtless introduced 
on nursery stock. On account of its small size and peculiar 
habits, the insect itself- will rarely be seen by the fruit-grower, 



48 



FRUIT INSECTS 




Fig. 49. — Hibernating cases of the cigar- 
case-bearer. Herrick photo. Enlarged. 



but the curious little cigar-shaped suits in which the caterpillars 

live in May and June are quite conspicuous on the foliage. 

The caterpillar protrudes itself 
from its case, eats a tiny round 
hole through the skin of the 
leaf and then mines out the in- 
terior tissue as far as it can 
reach and still retain its case. 
Thus many small, blotch mines 
are made which soon turn 

brown, and often whole leaves are thus mined out. About 

September 15, the insect goes into hibernation as a minute, 

half-grown caterpillar in a tiny curved case attached to the 

twigs (Fig. 49). About the middle 

of April, the caterpillars move and 

proceed to eat holes in the opening 

buds, the expanding leaves, the stems 

of the flowers and fruits and the young 

fruits (Fig. 50). Additions are built 

on to the winter case, but in about a 

month the dark, orange-colored, 

black-headed caterpillar, scarcely \ 

of an inch long, deftly makes, by 

mining and cutting out a cigar-shaped 

area of the leaf, its larger cigar-shaped 

case or suit. In the latter part of June 

the caterpillars cease feeding, securely 

fasten the cases to the leaves or 

branches, and in about three weeks 

transform within through light brown 

pupa? to the tiny steel-gray moths, with a wing expanse of 

about f of an inch (Fig. 51). The females soon lay minute, 

yellow, pitted eggs among the hairs on the young leaves. 

Hatching in about two weeks, the tiny caterpillars work as 




Fig. 50. — Cigar-case-bearer 
attached to young pear which 
also shows several scars made 
by other case-bearers. 



APPLE INSECTS — BUDS AND FOLIAGE 49 

miners in the leaves for two or three weeks, then construct 
their curious little curved cases from bits of the skins of the 
leaves, and by the middle of September migrate to the twigs, 
where they hibernate. 

This cigar-case-bearer is capable of doing much damage to 
the young fruit and the foliage of fruit trees, and as it is pro- 
tected by a case ^ — — — f .».„~.-...,~ r . — -..*...,- ^ 

trol it. Possibly 

,i , Fig. 51. — Cigar-case-bearer moth (X 7). 

the strong sprays 

used against the San Jose scale in winter might reach the 
hibernating caterpillars in their tiny curved cases on the 
twigs. Early in the spring, or soon after the buds open and 
the caterpillars begin work, a thorough application of kerosene 
emulsion, diluted with 9 parts of water, has proved effective 
in Canada. In the commercial orchards of western New York 
case-bearers are usually controlled by the use of arsenate of lead, 
as recommended for the bud-moth, page 42. 

References 

Cornell Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 93. 1895. 

Fletcher, Rept. Ent. Ottawa, for 1894, pp. 201-206. 1895. 

U. S. Bur. Ent. Bull. 80, Pt. II. 1909. 

The Pistol Case-bearer 

Coleophora malivorella Riley 

This interesting insect spends about seven months of its 
life (from about September 1 to April 1) in hibernation as a 
minute, half-grown caterpillar in a small, pistol-shaped case 

E 



50 



FRUIT INSECTS 




about J of an inch long attached to the twigs of its food-plants, 
which are the apple especially, but also include the quince, 

plum and cherry. Early in 
April the little cases move 
and the caterpillars bore into 
and devour the swelling buds, 
expanding leaves, and espe- 
cially the flowers. For four 
days about May 1, the cases 
may be found again fastened 
to the twigs while the cater- 
pillars are molting inside. 
Unlike the cigar-case-bearer, 
this insect does not make a 
complete new case as it grows, 
but simply makes silken ad- 
ditions to the ends and sides 
of the old case. Most of their 
feeding is done openly and not 
as miners, irregular holes being eaten in the leaves, often skeleton- 
izing them. The caterpillars never leave their cases, but 
project themselves out far enough to get a foothold, then begin 
to eat, holding the 
case at a consider- 
able angle from the 
leaf. They are most 
destructive on the 
flowers, where they 
eat the petals and 
stems, thus destroy- 
ing the prospective 
crop. Sometimes 

they also bore into the young fruits. In the latter part of May 
they cease feeding, securely fasten the pistol-shaped cases, now 



Fig. 52. — Pistol-case-bearers attached 
for pupation. 




Fig. 53. — Pistol-case-bearer moth (X 5). 



APPLE INSECTS — BUDS AND FOLIAGE 



51 




Fig. 54. — Pistol-case- bearer, moth 
resting on its empty case. 



about \ of an inch long, to the smaller branches (Fig. 52). 

These dark brown, bark-colored cases are made largely of silk, 

particles of excrement and the 

pubescence of the leaves. Turn- 
ing around in its case, the 

orange-colored caterpillar with 

black head, thoracic shield and 

legs, transforms in about a 

month through a light brown 

pupa to a pretty, little, dark 

drab-colored Tineid moth (Fig. 

53) with a wing expanse of 

about | an inch. It emerges 

from the " handle " end of the 

pistol (Fig. 54). On the basal 

third of the front wings white 

scales predominate in the fe- 
males especially, the legs and antenna? have alternating rings 

of dark and white scales, and there is a conspicuous tuft of 

scales on the basal joint of each antenna?. The females glue 

their minute, pretty, cinnamon- 
colored, inverted cup-like, ribbed 
eggs to the surface of the leaves 
(Fig. 55). The tiny caterpillars 
hatch from these eggs in about a 
week, or late in July, and eat little 
holes in the leaves. They soon 
construct of silk and excrement 
little pistol-shaped cases to which 
they build additions until about 

Fig. 55. -Eggs of the pistol- September 1, when they begin to 

case-bearer. Greatly enlarged. . . .. . . , . , 

migrate to the twigs and there 
fasten their cases to the bark and hibernate until April. 
Since 1877 this insect has been very injurious in apple or- 




52 FRUIT INSECTS 

chards at intervals of several years in New York and Pennsyl- 
vania. It is widely distributed in Canada and the United 
States, extending westward to New Mexico, where it was doubt- 
less carried on nursery stock. It is capable of very destructive 
work and sometimes becomes so numerous that there is a case- 
bearer for every two or three buds. Two or three tiny parasites 
help to control it. 

Experiments show that this pistol-case-bearer can be effec- 
tually controlled with two applications of a poison spray before 
the blossoms open, as recommended for the bud-moth, page 45. 

References 

Lintner, 1st Rept. State Ent., N. Y., pp. 163-167. 1882. 

Cornell Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 124. 1897. 

N. Y. (Geneva) Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 122. 1897. 

The Palmer-worm 

Ypsolophus ligulellus Hiibner 

This little Tineid moth occurs throughout the eastern half 
of the United States, but has done noticeable injury only in 
New York and the New England states. It is a remarkable, 
example of the " ups and downs " of insect life, as it suddenly 
appears over a large area, does much damage for a year or two, 
then as suddenly disappears, often remaining in obscurity for 
half a century or more. Its first outbreak occurred in 1791 
in New England, followed 62 years later by the second over a 
wider territory, including New York in 1853, and after waiting 
57 years, or in 1900, it again ravaged apple orchards in New 
York. Its favorite food seems to be the foliage and fruits of 
apple, oak foliage, and, curiously enough, the spongy oak-apple 
galls are sometimes eaten. The caterpillars or palmer-worms 
are only about \ of an inch in length when full-grown, and of a 
general olivaceous or brownish-green color, usually with a light 



APPLE INSECTS — BUDS AND FOLIAGE 



53 



brown head ; some are darker in color, with nearly black heads 
and thoracic shields. Two lateral and two dorsal whitish stripes 
give the dorsum the 
appearance of being 
traversed by two 
broad, dark stripes 
and a similar nar- 
rower mesal stripe 
of the general body 
color (Fig. 56). 
The active little 
palmer- wo rms 
move with a wrig- 
gling motion when 
touched, and work 
on the foliage and 

young fruits for 3 or 4 weeks in June. They skeletonize the 
foliage and spin down when disturbed, but are not loopers or 
measuring-worms, and although only about half as large as 




Fig. 56. 



The palmer-worm in its scanty silken 
net ( X 5) 




Fig. 57. — Young apples eaten into by palmer-worms. Note the caterpillars 
in the first and third apples from the right. 

canker-worms, may be more destructive, as they frequently eat 
large, deep holes into the sides of the young fruits (Fig. 57). 
They feed openly on the leaves, sometimes fastening 2 or 3 leaves 



54 



FRUIT INSECTS 



together with silk, or, often rolling the edge of a leaf slightly, 
fasten it with silk threads and feed beneath this partial protec- 
tion. Late in June, these palmer- 
worms transform to tiny brown 
pupae (Fig. 58), which may be at- 
tached by a few silken threads, at 
their posterior ends, to the injured 
leaves, or may be found on the 
ground. In about ten days there 
emerges from these pupse the minute 
gray or grayish-brown moths with 
a wing expanse of little more than J 
an inch (Fig. 59). They are quite 
variable in color and markings. 
The front wings are more or less 
sprinkled with black scales and 
Fig. 58. — Palmer-worm pups, marked with 4 small, black spots 

arranged obliquely near the middle 
and 6 or 7 black dots near the fringed edge. The hind wings 
are heavily fringed and of a dusky color with glossy azure-blue 
reflection. There is but a single brood of palmer-worms an- 
nually; the moths 
which emerge early 
in July apparently 
hibernate and lay 
their tiny, delicate, 
pearly-white, ob- 
long-oval eggs in the 
spring. The eggs 
are laid on the 
under side of the 
opening leaves in 
May ; they are tucked away among the hairs or deposited in 
the angles of the veins. 




Fig. 59. — Palmer-worm moth ; the wings on each 
side represent a different variety ( X 5) . 



APPLE INSECTS — BUDS AND FOLIAGE 55 

Climatic conditions undoubtedly have much to do with the 
" ups and downs " of this insect. Excessively dry weather 
in April and May favors the development, and heavy rains 
often knock many from the leaves in June, and they never get 
back. Many of the palmer-worms are also killed by the maggot 
of a tiny parasitic fly known as Apanteles sp. Palmer- worms 
can be controlled with one or two applications of arsenate of 
lead, 4 pounds in 100 gallons of water or dilute lime-sulfur 
solution. The application should be made at the first appear- 
ance of the caterpillars in early June. 

References 

Cornell Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 187. 1901. 

N. Y. (Geneva) Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 212, pp. 16-22. 1902. 

Click-beetles 

Corymbites caricinus Germar 
Corymbites iarsalis Melsheimer 
Corymbites cylindriformis Herbst 

These three slender brown click-beetles, from f to \ an inch 
in length, sometimes swarm on to apple and pear trees in the 
spring and attack the opening buds and the flowers, denuding 
orchards of blossoms in some instances. Thus far their ravages 
have been confined to Nova Scotia, British Columbia and other 
localities in Canada. In their larval stage as wireworms, these 
click-beetles doubtless bred on the roots of grasses, either in the 
orchards if in sod or in near-by fields, so that thorough cultiva- 
tion in late fall would help much to reduce their numbers. As 
the beetles drop quickly and feign death when the tree is jarred, 
they can be readily captured on sheets or plum curculio-catchers. 
Or many of them would doubtless succumb to a strong poison 
spray of arsenate of lead, 6 or 8 pounds in 100 gallons. 

Reference 
Fletcher, Rept. Exp. Farms Ottawa 1895, p. 149, 1896. 



56 



FRUIT INSECTS 




Fig. 60. — Cocoons of the ribbed cocoon-maker. 



The Ribbed Cocoon-maker of the Apple 

Bucculatrix pomifoliella Clemens 

The small but conspicuous whitish, distinctly ribbed co- 
coons, about | of an inch long, of this insect, often occur in large 
numbers in autumn on the undersides of the smaller branches 

of apple trees (Fig. 
60), and may first 
reveal to the fruit 
grower its presence 
in the orchard. It is 
usually a local pest 
in widely separated 
orchards, but has a wide distribution over the eastern half 
of Canada and in the United States from Maine to Texas. 
Although it is capable of doing much damage to foliage, it is 
rarely a serious pest, and attacks only the apple, other fruit trees 
being apparently immune even when growing in close proximity 
to apples. A little brown pupa hibernates in the white cocoons, 
and when the leaves 
are unfolding in May 
it works halfway out 
of one end of the 
cocoon and there 
emerges a tiny, light 
brown moth about 
Yo of an inch in 
length with each front wing marked with a large, dark brown 
spot (Fig. 61). In a few days, minute, pale green, elliptical, 
iridescent, roughened eggs are laid singly on the under 
surface of the leaves. The tiny caterpillars which hatch 
from these eggs in from 6 to 10 days burrow directly into 
the leaf, where for about a week they make narrow mines 




Fig. 61. — Ribbed cocoon-maker moth (X 8). 



APPLE INSECTS — BUDS AND FOLIAGE 



57 



nearly f of an inch in length. It then comes out of this mine 
and makes a thin, white, silken molting cocoon (Fig. 62), 
within which its skin is shed in a few days, and the greenish- 
brown caterpillar feeds openly on the surface of the leaves 
near the edges. A second larger molting cocoon is made in 
about 4 days. Two days later the caterpillars appear in their 
last stage and proceed to skeletonize the foliage for about a 




Fig. 62. — Apple leaf showing mines and "molting cocoons" of the caterpillars, 

enlarged. 



week, finally wandering about to find a suitable place to spin 
their true ribbed cocoons early in July on the leaves, young fruits 
or twigs and larger limbs. It requires 3 or 4 hours to build one 
of these ribbed cocoons (Fig. 63). The pupal stage lasts from 
1 to 2 weeks in these summer cocoons, most of the moths emerg- 
ing by August 1 in New York. The mines of the young cater- 
pillars are usually near the centers of the leaves, while most of 
the skeletonizing is done near the edges and always on the upper 
surface. When badly eaten, the leaves turn brown and curl. 
The caterpillars often hang suspended from the leaves by silken 



58 FRUIT INSECTS 

threads, and may be blown on to other food-plants near by, 
where their cocoons are sometimes found. 

In Maine there is apparently but one brood of this insect 
annually, as the moths did not appear until spring from pupae 
formed August 1. In southern New York, however, there are 
two distinct broods, the moths emerging in July lay eggs early 
in August and the second brood of caterpillars work on the leaves 
during August and September in the same manner as the first 
brood. Being more numerous, the work of the second brood is 




Fig. 63. — The ribbed cocoon-maker building its cocoon. Enlarged. 

usually more conspicuous and extensive than that of the spring 
brood. Eighty per cent of the cocoons made in autumn are 
within two feet of the ends of the branches on the lower third 
of the trees. 

The summer brood is far less liable to be attacked by parasites 
and diseases, moths emerging from 80 to 90 per cent of the cocoons 
in July, whereas it is unusual for moths to emerge from more 
than 50 per cent of the winter cocoons. Five tiny hymenopter- 
ous parasites, Cirrospilus flavicinctus, Encyrtus bucculatricis, 
Mesochorus politics, Apanteles caccecice and Zaporus sp., play 
an important part in checking this pest. Many of the cocoons 
are often stripped from the twigs by birds in winter, and in 



APPLE INSECTS — BUDS AND FOLIAGE 59 

summer the caterpillars are frequently found in webs spun across 
the surfaces of the leaves by the spiders, Dictyna foliacea and 
Araneus displicatus. There is also a great mortality, sometimes 
nearly 50 per cent, among the larvae and pupae in the cocoons 
in autumn, due apparently to some disease, causing them to 
shrivel and become dry and hard. 

Remedial measures. 

Sprays of whale-oil soap (1 pound in 1 gallon of water), the 
lime-sulfur wash, and probably the miscible oils (1 gallon in 
10 of water) applied thoroughly at any time during the winter or 
early spring, while the tree is dormant, will soak through the 
white cocoons and kill the hibernating pupae. Judicious prun- 
ing and burning of infested twigs in winter would destroy 
many. The application of a poison spray in the latter part of 
June will kill many of the tiny caterpillars then feeding on the 

leaves. 

Reference 

Cornell Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 214. 1903. 

The Lesser Apple Leaf-roller 

Alceris minuta Robinson 

Throughout the eastern United States a small, pale yellowish- 
green caterpillar, about \ of an inch long, with a yellow head and 
thoracic shield, often draws the opposite edges of apple leaves 
together upwards and fastens them with silk. Living within 
the shelter of this folded leaf it feeds over the inner surface, 
often partially skeletonizing the leaf and causing it to turn 
brown. Sometimes nursery stock and young orchards are so 
badly infested, a majority of the leaves being folded and brown, 
that from a distance the trees appear as if a fire had swept 
through them, and much injury results. Older bearing trees 
are rarely seriously damaged by the insect. Besides being a 
serious menace to young apple trees, and sometimes attacking 



60 FRUIT INSECTS 

pears also, it is the yellow-headed cranberry worm, a destructive 
pest of cranberry bogs (see page 462) . 

There are three generations or broods of this insect annually 
on apple in the latitude of Missouri, but it is two-brooded in the 
cranberry bogs of Massachusetts. The moths are dimorphic ; 
those of the one or two summer broods have bright, orange- 
colored front wings, while those of the autumn brood have slaty- 
gray front wings, often with a dusting of orange scales. The 
moths have a wing expanse of about f of an inch. The third or 
dimorphic brood, bearing the varietal name of Cinderella, appear 
in September and October, and hibernate in sheltered places. 
In the spring these gray moths emerge from their winter quarters 
and lay their minute, disk-like yellow eggs on the unfolding 
young leaves. Two or three broods of the caterpillars fold the 
leaves during the growing season, the first working in May, the 
second in July, and the third brood, where it occurs, works in 
August or September. 

A single folded apple leaf usually furnishes sufficient food for a 
caterpillar. After feeding for 3 or 4 weeks, it spins a delicate, 
silken web or cocoon within the leaf, and then transforms to a 
small brown pupa about f of an inch long, and characterized 
by a curious knob-like projection from the front of the head. 
In a week or ten days these pupae work their way about half out 
of the folded leaves, and the moths emerge. 

This apple leaf-folder has many parasitic enemies which are 
often effective aids in restricting its injuries. A Tachina-fly 
and several hymenopterous parasites are known to prey upon 
the caterpillars, and in Michigan a flock of birds, probably the 
rusty grackle, have been seen destroying many of the pupse, 
neatly picking them out of the folded leaves. 

Remedial measures. 

It is often practicable in nurseries and young orchards to 
employ men or boys to go through and pinch the folded leaves, 
thus destroying the caterpillars within. This should be done 



APPLE INSECTS — BUDS AND FOLIAGE 61 

early in the season when the first brood is working, so as to pre- 
vent the development of later broods. The insect can also be 
controlled with a poison spray. Spray thoroughly just as the 
eggs are hatching early in the spring, when the first leaves are 
unfolding, with arsenate of lead, 4 to 6 pounds in 100 gallons of 
water. Repeat the application in a few days if necessary. If 
the first brood is missed or not treated, quite effective work can 
also be done against the later broods of caterpillars with the 
poison sprays if applied just as the eggs are hatching. 

References 

Forbes, 4th Rept. Ent. 111., pp. 75-85. 1889. 
Mo. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 36, pp. 63-73. 1896. 
Iowa Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 102. 1909. 



The Apple Leaf-sewer 
Ancylis nubeculana Clemens 

This insect works on apple leaves in much the same way as 
the lesser apple leaf-folder, but it differs much in its life history. 
The greenish-yellow caterpillar is about J an inch long when full- 
grown and has a yellowish head and cervical shield, the latter 
with a conspicuous black spot near each outer hind corner. 
These caterpillars hatch in early June, soon fold over a portion 
of a leaf, and finally draw the opposite edges of the whole leaf 
together upwards and securely fasten or sew them with silk. 
Within this hollow shelter they feed on the green tissues during 
the rest of the season, becoming full-grown in autumn. Their 
leafy home is then lined with silk and the caterpillars hibernate 
therein in the fallen leaves. There is thus but a single brood 
annually, the caterpillars transforming through yellowish-brown 
pupae to the moths in about 10 days in April. The pupae wriggle 
their way through the back of the decayed leaves and the moths 
continue to emerge for about a month. The oddly marked front 



62 



FRUIT INSECTS 



wings of these Tortricid moths are white with brown mottlings 
and shades, and have an expanse of about f of an inch. 

This leaf -sewer rarely does serious injury, but in a few instances 
it has appeared in alarming numbers in orchards in western 
New York and in Ontario, Canada. 

Well cultivated orchards rarely suffer from this pest, as most 
of the hibernating caterpillars are buried with the fallen leaves. 
The effective method of raking up and burning the leaves in 
autumn would be practicable in some cases. A thorough 
application of a poison spray in early June will also kill many of 
the caterpillars then just beginning work on the foliage. 



The Fruit-tree Leaf-roller 

Ar chips argyrospila Walker 

Recorded as common throughout practically the whole of the 
United States, this insect is one of the most destructive of the 

leaf -rollers infesting fruit trees. It 
has been especially injurious in the 
orchards of New York, Missouri and 
Colorado, attacking apple, pear, 
cherry, plum, apricot, quince, rose, 
currant, raspberry and gooseberry, 
besides about a dozen different kinds 
of forest trees ; curiously enough 
peaches seem to be exempt from at- 
tack. It is thus a very general feeder, 
and it sometimes strips fruit trees 
and ruins many of the young fruits. 

The eggs are laid in June on the 
bark of the twigs in small flat, light 
brown or grayish patches, each patch 
containing about 150 eggs and covered with an impervious 
gummy substance (Fig. 64). The winter is passed in the egg 




Fig. 64. — Egg-mass of the 
fruit-tree leaf-roller on an 
apple twig, enlarged. Herrick 
photo. 



APPLE INSECTS — BUDS AND FOLIAGE 



63 




Fig. 65. — Larva of the fruit-tree leaf-roller be- 
ginning its nest on an apple leaf. Knight photo. 



stage. The caterpillars hatch about May 1, and enter the 
opening buds, where they roll and fasten the leaves loosely 
together with silken threads into a nest within which they 
feed (Figs. 65 and 
66) . After the fruits 
set, they are often in- 
cluded in the nests 
and ruined by the cat- 
erpillars eating large 
irregular holes in 
them (Fig. 67). The 
caterpillars get their 
growth in 2 or 3 
weeks, and are then 
about | of an inch 
long, light green in 
color with the head, 
legs and thoracic shield varying from brown to black. About ten 
days are spent as a brown pupa (Fig. 68) in a delicate silken web 
or cocoon in the nest early in June. The moths emerge, and 

soon lay the peculiar 
patches of eggs on 
the bark, thus com- 
pleting the life-cycle 
of the single annual 
generation of this 
leaf-roller. The 
pretty little moths, 
measuring about f of 
an inch across the 
expanded wings, vary 
considerably in coloring and markings (Fig. 69). The front 
wings are rust-brown in color, marked with bands and spots of 
very pale yellow. 




Fig. 66. — Apple leaf rolled by the fruit-tree 
leaf -roller. Knight photo. 



64 



FRUIT INSECTS 



A number of hymenopterous parasites attack this leaf-roller. 
Toads often eat many of the caterpillars that drop from the 
trees, and red-winged blackbirds are efficient enemies in Colo- 
rado. 

Means of control. 

The leaf-roller has been found a difficult insect to control by 
ordinary spraying with arsenical poisons. 
Recent work in Colorado has shown, how- 
ever, that over 95 per cent of the eggs can 
be destroyed by one thorough application 







Fig. 67. 



Small apples eaten by the leaf-roller. 
Knight photo. 



Fig. 68. — 
Pupa of thefruit- 
tr.ee leaf-roller. 
Knight photo. 



of a miscible oil, one part in 19 parts of water, made early in the 
spring while the trees are dormant. Efficient work against the 
eggs can also be done with a 10 per cent kerosene emulsion 

whenever for any reason it 
is undesirable to use a mis- 
cible oil. In case the eggs 
have not been treated it is 
necessary to resort to arsen- 
ical sprays to kill the young 
caterpillars. Use arsenate 
of lead, 6 pounds in 100 
gallons of water, making the 

Fig. 69. — Fruit-tree leaf-roller moth. & . 

Knight photo (x 2|). first application just as soon 




APPLE INSECTS — BUDS AND FOLIAGE 65 

as the buds begin to burst, and the second when the blossom 
buds in the cluster begin to separate. This should be followed 
by the regular spray for the codlin-moth just as the last of the 
petals are falling. 

References 

Col. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 19, pp. 3-9. 1892. 
Mo. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 71. 1906. 
Cornell Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 311. 1912. 
Col. St. Ent. Circular 5. 1912. 
U. S. Bur. Ent. Bull. 116, Pt. V. 1913. 



The Oblique-banded Leaf-roller 
Ar chips rosaceana Harris 

The caterpillar of this leaf -roller varies from a light yellowish - 
brown to apple green in color and is about f of an inch in length, 
with a brownish-black head and thoracic shield, the latter usually 
with a whitish cephalic border, and often more or less green 
bordered with black. It lives in a nest similar to that of the 
bud-moth, formed by rolling or folding and tying together leaves 
of apple, pear, cherry, plum, peach, rose, raspberry, gooseberry, 
currant, strawberry, and several other trees, wild berries, red 
clover, more than half a dozen weeds, and eats into growing 
cotton bolls. The insect is common and widely distributed 
throughout the northern United States, where it is sometimes 
quite injurious, especially on apple trees. In addition to eating 
the leaves and often checking the growth of shoots, the cater- 
pillars sometimes attack the young fruits, either gnawing off the 
skin or eating holes in them. 

There are two broods of the caterpillars annually, the first 
brood working in May and June and the second in July and 
August. 

When full-grown, the caterpillars transform in their nest to 
brown pupae, from which emerge in a week or ten days the 



66 



FRUIT INSECTS 




oblique-banded, light cinnamon-brown 
colored moths with a wing expanse of about 
an inch (Fig. 70). The front wings are 
reticulated with brown and each is crossed 
by three broad, oblique dark brown bands. 
The females lay their eggs in flat patches 
(Fig. 71) on the bark, and the insect hiber- 
nates in this stage. 



Fig. 70. — The ob- 
lique-banded leaf-roller 
moth, from life. Knight Fig. 71 
photo (X3|). 




Egg-mass of the oblique- banded leaf-roller. 
Herrick photo. 



A large ichneumon parasite, Glypta simplicipes, destroys 
many of the caterpillars of this oblique-banded leaf-roller. 

The Four-banded Leaf-roller 

Eulia quadrifasciana Fernald 

This smaller, bright yellow caterpillar, about J an inch long, 
sometimes works on apple trees with and in much the same way 
as the oblique-banded leaf-roller. It webs a few leaves together 
and riddles them. The insect is widely distributed over the 
northern United States, and has done considerable injury in 
apple orchards in Delaware, working with the preceding species, 
and has helped to nearly strip trees in Canada. The moths are 
lemon-yellow, with the front wings reticulated with orange-red 
and each crossed by two narrow oblique darker bands. They 
measure across expanded wings about f of an inch, and have 
been reared late in May and June. 

These two Tortricid leaf-rollers can be controlled by the 
measures recommended for the fruit-tree leaf-roller on page 64. 



APPLE INSECTS — BUDS AND FOLIAGE 



67 



The Apple Leaf-skeletonizer 
Canarsia hammondi Riley 

The small greenish or brownish caterpillars of this insect are 
about | an inch long, with 4 black, shining tubercles on the back 
just behind the head, and usually with a broad darker stripe 
along each side of the back. They live upon the upper side of 
the leaves under a thin web of silken threads, where they eat out 
the green pulpy portion, leaving a network of veinlets and giving 
the foliage a skeletonized and rusty or highly blighted appear- 
ance. There are two 
broods of the insect 
annually, one work- 
ing in midsummer 
and the other, usu- 
ally the more nu- 
merous, in Septem- 
ber and October. 
Sometimes the cater- 




Fig. 72. — The apple leaf-skeletonizer moth (X 5). 



pillars work gregariously in a nest of several leaves webbed 
together. Pupation occurs on the leaves and the second brood 
hibernates in the pupa stage. This Pyralid moth (Fig. 72) 
has an expanse of about one half an inch; the front wings 
are glossy purplish-brown, each marked with two silvery- 
gray transverse bands. 

This leaf-skeletonizer is most common in the Mississippi 
Valley, where it is sometimes quite destructive in nurseries and 
young orchards. It works practically only on apple trees, 
rarely attacking plum and quince. 

Two or three parasites attack it. As the caterpillars feed 
openly on the surface of the foliage, they can be easily killed 
with a poison spray applied as early in the season as their 
skeletonizing work is noticed. 



68 FRUIT INSECTS 

Reference 
Forbes, 4th Rept. State Ent. 111., pp. 58-64. 1889. 

The Leaf-crumpler 
Mineola indigenella Zeller. 

Although widely distributed over the northern portion of the 
United States as far west as Colorado, and occurring also 
in Canada, this leaf-crumpler is usually most common and de- 
structive in Missouri and the surrounding states. Nursery 
stock and young apple or quince orchards are sometimes seri- 
ously injured, and plum, cherry, peach and rarely pear may be 
included among its food-plants. The partially grown, reddish- 
brown caterpillars hibernate in a slender, blackish, oddly crooked 
or twisted horn-like or cornucopia-shaped tube or case nearly 
an inch long, hidden among several partially eaten brown and 
crumpled leaves, all fastened securely to the branches. Early 
in the spring the hungry caterpillars cut loose the fastenings of 
their winter home and travel with the odd-shaped cases to the 
opening buds and begin feeding. Several leaves are often 
fastened together, and sometimes the young fruits are attacked 
or the tender bark gnawed from the twigs. 

When full-grown, in the latter part of May or early June, 
the caterpillars are about f of an inch in length, and of a dark 
greenish-brown color, with the head and cervical shield dark 
reddish-brown ; there is also a flattened blackish prominence 
on each side below the shield. After fastening the crooked 
cases to the bark and securely closing them the caterpillars 
transform in about 2 weeks through reddish-brown pupae to 
Pyralid moths measuring about y 7 ^ of an inch across the ex- 
panded wings (Fig. 73). The front wings are pale brown, with 
patches and streaks of silvery white. The eggs are said to 
hatch in about a week. The young, brown caterpillars feed 



APPLE INSECTS — BUDS AND FOLIAGE 



69 



preferably upon the leaves of the tender shoots, and soon con- 
struct their peculiar cases of silk, excrement and other debris. 
Additions are built on around the larger end of the case as the 
caterpillar grows, and although rough exteriorly, it is smoothly 
lined with silk on the interior. As cold weather approaches, 
the cases containing the partially grown caterpillars are fas- 
tened up for hiber- 
nation. There is 
but a single brood 
annually. 

At least three para- 
sites attack this leaf- 
crumpler and render 
efficient aid in hold- 
ing it in check. 

As their hibernating quarters are rendered quite conspicuous 
by surrounding brown and crumpled leaves, it is practicable 
to hand pick these winter nests from the bare trees, and thus 
destroy many of the young caterpillars. Over 140 have been 
taken from a single 6-year-old tree in Oklahoma, and one man 
collected 1584 of the winter nests in 4 hours. 

The insect can be easily controlled also by the thorough 
application of a poison spray just before and again just after 
the blossoming period of the trees. 




Fig. 73. — The leaf-crumpler moth (X 3|). 



References 

Forbes, 4th Rept. State Ent. 111., pp. 65-74. 1889. 
Mo. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 36, pp. 73-80. 1896. 



The Trumpet Leaf-miner 
Tischeria malifoliella Clemens 

Over the eastern half of the United States and Canada this 
is often the most common and destructive of the insects which 



70 



FRUIT INSECTS 



make mines in apple leaves. The full-grown caterpillars are 
flat-bodied, about \ of an inch in length, without legs, light 
green, with head, thoracic and anal shields brownish. Their 
brown, blister-like, trumpet-shaped mines about \ of an inch 
long are always made just beneath the epidermis on the upper 
side of the leaves, being scarcely noticeable from the under- 
side unless the leaf is held .to the light. The mines begin at 
the point where the minute, elliptical, greenish-yellow, disk- 




Fig. 74. — Mines of the trumpet leaf-miner. 



like, iridescent eggs are laid, the tiny caterpillars entering the 
leaf beneath the edge of the eggshell. The mines continue 
for a short distance as a narrow line, gradually growing wider, 
and then often suddenly expand into a broad, blotch mine, 
the whole having a trumpet-shaped appearance. The first 
half of the mine is usually crossed by crescent-shaped stripes 
of white (Fig. 74). 

In the North there are two broods of this miner annually, 
the first brood of caterpillars working in June and July and 



APPLE INSECTS — BUDS AND FOLIAGE 



71 




the second in August and September. Four broods have 
been observed near Washington, the mines being made in May, 
July, August and September ; the life-cycle of a generation 
was about 33 days. The transformation through the tiny, 
greenish-brown pupae occurs in the mines. In autumn the 
mines are heavily lined with white silk and the little caterpil- 
lars pass the winter therein on the fallen leaves. The adult 
insect is a tiny Tineid moth with shining dark brown front 
wings, tinged with purplish and dusted with pale yellowish 
scales (Fig. 75). They measure across expanded wings only 
about \ of an inch. 

Sometimes the 
mines are so nu- 
merous as to in- 
volve much of the 
leaf, which curls 
and finally drops 2 
or 3 weeks earlier 
than usual, thus 

preventing the full development of the fruit and reducing 
the vitality of the tree. Sixty-eight caterpillars have been 
found working on a single leaf. On large trees, the foliage 
on the higher branches is usually more seriously infested. 

The favorite food-plant of this native leaf-miner is the culti- 
vated apple, but it also breeds on native crab and haw trees. 
The trumpet-shaped mines in the leaves of blackberry and 
raspberry usually attributed to this insect are now considered 
to be the work of two other species, the Tischeria oenea and 
roseticola of Frey and Boll. 

At least half a dozen tiny hymenopterous parasites destroy 
many of these miners, thus doing much to prevent the insect 
from increasing to destructive numbers. 

Remedial treatment. 

As this insect hibernates on the fallen leaves, many of them 



Fig. 75. — The trumpet leaf -miner moth (x 10). 



72 



FRUIT INSECTS 



can be destroyed by plowing infested orchards either in late 
fall or early spring. Thoroughly cultivated orchards will 
rarely suffer serious injury from this miner. Experiments 
indicate that many of the larvae and pupae can be killed in the 
mines by thorough applications of 10 or 15 per cent kerosene 
lime emulsion. Just as effective work with less danger of in- 
juring the foliage could doubtless be done with u Black Leaf 
40 " tobacco extract, one pint in 100 gallons of water, adding 4 
pounds of soap to each 100 gallons to make the liquid stick and 

spread better. 

References 



Brunn, Cornell Univ. Exp. Sta., Second Rept., pp. 155-157. 
Forbes, 4th Rept. State Ent. 111., pp. 45-50. 1889. 
Conn. (Storrs) Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 45. 1906. 
U. S. Bur. Ent. Bull. 68, Pt. III. 1907. 
Del. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 87, pp. 3-9. 1910. 



1883. 



Some Lesser Leaf-miners of the Apple 

The following four species of small caterpillars work as 
miners in the leaves of apple, and while often numerous enough 
to attract attention, they rarely appear in sufficient numbers 
to do serious injury. 

The spotted tentiform leaf -miner (Lithocolletes blancar delta 

Fabricius). 
The tiny light yellow caterpillars, only \ of an inch long, 

make a small mine 
about \ an inch long 
on the lower surface 
of the leaf, which 
causes a slight crimp- 
ing of the leaf, thus 

0*1 VI HP" \ h f-* TYllYlf* f\ 

Fig. 76. — The moth of the spotted tentiform leaf- ,. 

miner (x 12). tent-like appear- 




APPLE INSECTS — BUDS AND FOLIAGE 



73 



ance. From the upper surface, the mine has a spotted 
appearance due to the caterpillars not mining out the whole 
interior, but eating a little here and there in the •mine. The 
mines are finished in September, the caterpillars transform 
to pupae therein, and the winter is passed in this stage on the 
fallen leaves. The minute Tineid moths which emerge in the 
spring have golden brown front wings marked with white 
streaks and spots and a black apical spot (Fig. 76). This 
European miner is quite common on apple leaves in the 
eastern United States, but has not yet been recorded as 
doing serious injury. 

References 

Brunn, Cornell Univ. Exp. Sta., Second Rept., pp. 148-150. 1883. 

The unspotted tentiform leaf -miner (Ornix geminatella Packard) . 

The tentiform mines of this insect are larger, and distort 
the leaves more than k 

those of the preceding «. J Ik** 

species (Fig. 77). The 
grayish caterpillars, 
about \ of an inch 
long, have a row of 6 
black spots across the 
head and 4 larger ones 
across the dorsum of 
the first thoracic seg- 
ment. They eat the 
whole interior except 
the veinlets, so that 
the mine appears 
brownish but not 
spotted on the upper 
surface. When nearly FlG 77 _ Mines of the unspotted tentiform 

full-grown the cater- leaf -miner. 




74 FRUIT INSECTS 

pillars leave their mines, and rolling over the edge of the leaf 
feed beneath for a short time, then line these retreats heavily 
with a silken cocoon within which they pupate. There are 
several broods each season. The tiny, dark, steel-gray moths 
emerge in the spring and measure only § of an inch across 
the expanded wings. This miner is widely distributed 
across the northern half of the United States, and is ap- 
parently more common than the spotted tentiform miner. 
In some cases two-thirds of the leaves in orchards have been 
distorted by from 2 to 4 of the unspotted mines, yet no very 
serious injury resulted. The insect also attacks pear and wild 

cherry foliage. 

References 

Brunn, Cornell Univ. Exp. Sta., Second Rept., pp. 151-154. 1883. 

Forbes, 4th Rept. State Ent. III., pp. 51-57. 1889. 

N. Y. (Geneva) Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 180, pp. 131-134. 1900. 

The serpentine leaf -miner ( Nepticula pomivorella Packard) . 

The tiny, dark, emerald-green caterpillars, about T V of an 
inch long, make narrow, tortuous or serpentine mines, often 
2 inches in length and less than T V of an inch wide just beneath 
the upper surface of the leaves of the apple and pear. The 
first half or two thirds of the mine is broader and nearly filled 
with a continuous zigzagging thread of black excrement. 
The insect is quite common in Canada and the northeastern 
United States. In October, the tiny green caterpillars are 
sometimes seen hanging by silken threads from the leaves. 
They soon find their way to the twigs, where they spin small, 
oval, dense, brown cocoons about § of an inch long on the back, 
often in a crotch. These cocoons resemble, and could be easily 
mistaken for, Lecanium scales. In May the caterpillars trans- 
form through brilliant green pupae to the minute, shining, pur- 
plish-black moths with tufted, reddish-yellow head, that emerge 
early in June. Thus far no very serious injury has been re- 
corded by this interesting little Tineid serpentine miner. 



APPLE INSECTS — BUDS AND FOLIAGE 



75 




The resplendent shield-bearer (Coptodisca splendoriferella 
Clemens). 

Throughout the northern United States, from Maine to 
Minnesota often there may be found attached to the bark 
of apple, pear, quince, thorn-apple and wild cherry trees curi- 
ous little, oval, disk-shaped, seed- 
like, yellowish bodies about yo of an 
inch long (Fig. 78). From these 
little shields or cases, fastened to the 
bark at one end by a silken button, 
there emerges in May a tiny, bril- 
liantly colored, golden-headed moth 
(Fig. 79). The basal half of the FlG -- 7 S; n l he ? at } n l c £ 

v ° ' coons of the resplendent shield- 

front wings are leaden-gray with a bearer. 

resplendent luster and the remainder 

golden with silvery and dark brownish streaks. These beautiful 
little creatures run about on the leaves in the sunshine and lay 
their eggs, from which hatch the tiny, light, yellowish-brown, 
legless caterpillars about \ of an inch in length. These make 
an irregular dark-colored blotch mine, about \ of an inch in 

diameter, in the leaves and 
observable from both sur- 
faces. When full-grown, 
the caterpillars line a por- 
tion of the mine with silk, 
deftly cut it out and thus 
I h LT th °l ^ resplendent form their seed-like shield. 

shield-bearer (X 10;. 

Dropping from the leaves 
in July by a silken thread, they finally reach the bark or 
the ground, or are blown to other trees, where the cases 
are fastened. A second brood of the little miners works on 
the leaves in September and during October they fasten their 
cases to the bark and hibernate therein as caterpillars. 
Several quite serious outbreaks of this tiny shield-bearer 




Fig. 79. 



76 FRUIT INSECTS 

have occurred at Washington, in Connecticut and in Michigan 
on apple, quince and wild cherry, sometimes 25 or 30 mines 
occurring in a single leaf. The bark of the trunk and larger 
branches were fairly covered with the hibernating cases, 47 
having been counted on a spot not larger than a dime. 

Reference 
Comstock, Rept. U. S. Ent. for 1879, pp. 210-213. 

Natural enemies of the lesser leaf-miners of the apple. 

All of these little leaf-miners have enemies which are more 
or less effective aids in preventing their occurrence in injurious 
numbers. At least two tiny Chalcid parasites, Sympiesis 
nigrifemora and Astichus tischeriae attack both the spotted 
and unspotted tentiform-miners. Ants often tear open the 
cases of the resplendent shield-bearer and devour the inclosed 
caterpillar or pupa; two minute hymenopterous parasites also 
attack this miner. We have bred a tiny parasite from the 
serpentine miner, and many of the scale-like hibernating 
cocoons have been found in the stomachs of chickadees. 

Remedial treatments. 

In well cultivated and thoroughly sprayed orchards, leaf- 
miners rarely become abundant enough to cause appreciable 
loss, and special treatment is therefore rarely necessary. As all 
of these lesser leaf -miners feed inside the leaves they cannot be 
effectively reached with poison sprays. For the tentiform- 
miners, resort to the treatments recommended for the trumpet 
leaf-miner. Possibly a spray of " Black Leaf 40 " tobacco ex- 
tract, 1 pint in 100 gallons of water, to which 4 or 5 pounds of 
soap have been added would penetrate mines and kill the cater- 
pillars of the shield-bearer and serpentine-miner. When very 
numerous many of the cases of the shield-miner could be scraped 
from the trees and destroyed. 



APPLE INSECTS — BUDS AND FOLIAGE 77 

The Spring Canker-worm 

Paleacrita vernata Peck 

Canker-worms are among the oldest and most destructive of 
American orchard pests. The term " cancker-worme " appar- 
ently originated in England in 1530, and was used for several 
different insects in the first authorized English version of the 
Bible in 1611. As early as 1661, John Hull quaintly related 
that " the canker-worm hath for four years devoured most of 
the apples in Boston, that the apple trees look in June as if it 
was the 9th month" (meaning November). Several other seri- 
ous outbreaks of canker-worms were recorded in New England 
during the next century. Although the scientific name of 
vernata was applied to these canker-worms in 1795, and another 
name, pometaria, was proposed for some of the moths in 1841, 
it was not demonstrated until 1873 that two quite different 
species of insects had been masquerading as the canker-worm 
in America for more than 200 years. 

Canker-worms belong to the Geometrid group of moths whose 
caterpillars are called measuring-worms, span-worms or loopers 
from their peculiar manner of walking. Although several 
kinds of these measuring-worms are destructive to fruits, often 
working in the same orchards, the term canker-worm is restricted 
to the two distinct species recognized in 1873 and then given 
the common names of the spring canker-worm and the fall 
canker-worm. 

Both of these native species often occur together in injurious 
numbers in the same locality. The apple and elm are favorite 
food-plants, although several other fruit and shade trees are 
often attacked. The caterpillars appear on the trees in early 
spring and work mostly during May, skeletonizing the leaves, 
which soon turn brown. In June badly infested trees or or- 
chards often appear from a distance as though a fire had swept 



78 



FRUIT INSECTS 



through them. Like many other insect pests, canker-worms 
have their " ups and downs," or periods of increase and de- 
crease. Usually their destructive period lasts from 3 to 5 
years or more before their enemies and climatic conditions 
succeed in bringing about the "down" period, which may last 
10 or more years. The defoliated trees grow weaker each year, 




FlG> 80 . _ Canker-worm moths caught on sticky band while ascending tree 

trunk. 

mature but little fruit, and may finally succumb to the ravages 
of the hordes of canker-worms. If disturbed, the caterpillars 
often cling with their hind pro-legs and stand out straight, stiff 
and motionless, this strange attitude giving them a protective 
resemblance to the smaller twigs or leaf -stems ; or they may 
drop suddenly and swing suspended in the air by a silken cord 
until the threatened danger has apparently passed, when they 



APPLE INSECTS — BUDS AND FOLIAGE 



79 



resume their normal looping positions or ascend their ropes 
somewhat sailor-fashion. 

The male canker-worm moths have fully developed wings, 
while the females are practically wingless, only short stubs of 
wings being present. This lack of wings renders it necessary 
for the females to crawl up the trees to lay their eggs, and affords 
an opportunity to apply certain effective barrier remedial 
measures (Fig. 80). The moths are active only at night, 
and often ascend the trees in the greatest numbers between 
7 p.m. and 10 p.m. 
We have seen hun- 
dreds of the females 
ascending a single 
tree during the eve- 
ning in a badly in- 
fested orchard ; they 
are little disturbed 
by lights brought 
near. Many of 
them often secrete 
themselves in the 
crevices of the bark 

during the day. There are striking and easily discernible 
structural differences between the spring and the fall canker- 
worms in all four stages of their life-cycles. 

The spring canker-worm is common in Canada and in the 
northern United States from Maine westward to Kansas, thence 
southward through the Mississippi Valley to Texas. It also 
occurs in California. It is the species most often destructive 
in apple orchards, especially in its western range. The moths 
practically always emerge in early spring, sometimes during 
warm spells in February, but usually in March and April. 
They may continue to go up the trees for from 6 to 10 weeks. 
We have reared male moths varying in wing expanse from f to 



EfF"*-'?' *73i 




































^■L ■ 


:STi. K =l> 


t8H 


I^K -' 


^ < : 


■ ^^^| 




* 


• aMM 


Wr-"" 




» "^fl 


^^^^^^^^H^^:' 


jM 






L 





Fig. 81. — Spring canker-worm, male moth (X 2). 



80 



FBUIT INSECTS 




Fig. 82. — Spring canker 
worm, female moth ( X2) 



1J inches. The wings have a silky delicate appearance, the 

hind ones being unmarked and pale ash gray ; on the slightly 

darker, pale brownish-gray front wings 
usually three transverse, jagged, dark 
lines can be discerned, especially on 
the front edge of the wings (Fig. 81). 
The egg-laden wingless females are nearly 
| an inch long and of a rabbit-gray 
color, with white bands on the legs and 
usually a distinct black stripe along the 
middle of the back (Fig. 82). Both 
sexes of the moths have on top of each 
of the first seven abdominal segments 
two transverse rows of sharp reddish 
spines projecting backward ; as there are 
no spines on the moths of the fall canker- 
worm it is easy to distinguish the two species of canker-worms 

in the moth stage. 

A single female moth of the spring canker-worm may lay over 

400 eggs, which she tucks away in small, irregular pits or clusters 

in the crevices under bark scales and moss on the trunk and 

larger limbs of the trees. The delicate, slightly ridged, oval 

eggs are about 5^ of an inch long 

and of a dark iridescent metallic 

buff or purplish color (Fig. 83). 

The eggs hatch early in May, and 

the caterpillars feed for about a 

month on the pulpy portions of the 

leaves, thus skeletonizing them. 

The full-grown caterpillars are 

about an inch long, slender, and 

have but two pairs of pro-legs, 

thus being readily distinguished from the fall canker-worms, 

with their short third pair of pro-legs (Fig. 84). The spring 




Fig. 83. — Eggs 
canker-worm. 



of the spring 
Enlarged. 



APPLE INSECTS — BUDS AND FOLIAGE 



81 




Fig. 84. — Full-grown spring canker-worms (X 1|). 

canker-worms vary in color from a light mottled yellowish- 
brown to a dull black. Their more constant characteristics 
are a mottled head, a narrow yellow stripe just below the 



G 



82 



FRUIT INSECTS 




Fig. 85. — Spring canker-worm, side 
view (X 1|). 



spiracles, and a wide greenish-yellow stripe bordered by black 
lines along the middle of the venter (Fig. 85). Usually 3 narrow, 
more or less broken, yellow stripes can be distinguished ex- 
tending along each side of 
the body above the spir- 
acles. 

By June 1, most of the 
caterpillars get their growth, 
spin down from the trees, 
and enter the ground an 
inch or more, where they 
transform in a simple earthen cell to the greenish-brown, pup se 
(Fig. 86). There is but a single generation annually, the 
insect spending at least 9 months, including the winter, in 
the pupa stage. 

Natural enemies of canker-worms. 

Some of the caterpillars often fall a prey to several hymenop- 
terous and dipterous (Ta- 
china) parasites, predatory 
sucking bugs and ground- 
beetles. Potter-wasps some- 
times store their clay nests 
with them, and other enemies 
are mentioned in the discus- 
sion of the fall canker-worm. 
But .by far the most effective 
enemies of canker-worms are 
the birds. Over forty kinds 
of birds, especially the chick- 
adees, thrushes and warblers, 
have been found feeding on 
the caterpillars, the eggs or 
the egg-laden female moths. Yet in spite of the efficient aid thus 
rendered by the birds and other animal parasites, the cessation 




Fig. 



86. — Pupae of the spring canker- 
worm. Enlarged. 



APPLE INSECTS — BUDS AND FOLIAGE 83 

of destructive outbreaks of canker-worms is usually due more 
to certain obscure climatic or other local conditions. Early 
spring frosts often kill large numbers of the young caterpillars. 

Remedial measures for canker-worms. 

Although among the most destructive of the insect pests 
of orchards, canker-worms can be readily controlled. Well 
cultivated orchards are rarely injuriously infested with canker- 
worms. Thorough cultivation during June or later kills, or 
turns out for the birds or other enemies, many of the pupae in 
their earthen cells or cocoons near the surface. Thus orchards 
can be kept practically free from the devastating hordes of 
these caterpillars by simply practicing one of the most essential 
factors in modern fruit-growing ; namely, thorough cultivation. 

Barriers of various sorts have long been used to prevent their 
ascent or to trap and kill the wingless female moths when they 
attempt to crawl up the trunks of the trees to lay their eggs. 
To get the best results with these barriers it is necessary to 
know which species of canker-worm infests the trees. If it is 
the spring canker-worm, the barriers, need not be applied until 
late in February or during March, depending upon the early 
occurrence of a warm spell. But in the case of the fall canker- 
worm the barriers must be put on late in October and kept in 
working order until the ground is well frozen ; in some of the 
more southern or warmer localities in this insect's range, where 
many of the moths often do not emerge until early spring, it 
will be necessary to maintain the barriers during March and 
April also. 

Among the mechanical barriers, there are two simple devices 
that have been found effective. But few of the moths can get 
over a band of cotton batting several inches wide placed around 
the trunk, tied tightly with a string near the bottom edge, 
and the upper portion of the band then turned down over the 
lower, thus forming an inverted funnel-shaped barrier. When 
not kept matted down by frequent rains these cotton bands 



84 FRUIT INSECTS 

are very effective. A strip of mosquito wire netting, at least 
as fine as 16 wires to the inch, and about 14 inches wide, tacked 
so as to fit tightly around the tree at the top and held out from 
the bark for half an inch or more at the bottom by a spiral 
spring or nails driven into the tree, forms almost a perfect bar- 
rier to the wingless females. We have seen such wire traps 
nearly full of the moths in badly infested orchards. They 
should be crushed under the wire each night, and it is sometimes 
necessary to remove and empty the traps. While these me- 
chanical barriers may be very effective in preventing the females 
from getting on to the tree to oviposit, they often lay many 
eggs below the barriers, and in the case of the wire traps, the 
young caterpillars may crawl through the meshes and reach 
the foliage ; the cotton bands, if kept fresh and fluffy, would 
doubtless continue effective against the caterpillars. In apply- 
ing such barriers all rough places on the bark must be smoothed 
or filled so as to allow no chance for the moths to crawl under 
the edge of the bands. Their effectiveness will depend largely 
on their proper application and maintenance in a good working 
condition while the moths are active. 

Certain sticky band placed around the trunks of the trees 
are just as effective barriers as the wire traps or cotton bands, 
and they have the decided advantage of capturing and killing 
the egg-laden females, and also of effectively preventing the 
ascent of the young caterpillars that may be hatched below 
the bands. Among the sticky materials found effective are Tree 
Tanglefoot, a mixture of 5 pounds resin and 3 pints castor 
oil (some add Venice turpentine, 3 pints to this) and printer's 
ink mixed with black Virginia oil or some similar heavy oil to 
prevent its drying out too quickly. It is best to apply these 
on a band of tarred or other heavy paper 6 or 8 inches wide 
tacked or tied around the trunk and all roughnesses beneath 
filled with cotton. Keep the bands sticky by fresh applica- 
tions when needed. On badly infested trees it is sometimes 



APPLE INSECTS — BUDS AND FOLIAGE 85 

necessary to renew the bands or apply two, as many of the 
females may be able to cross the band over the dead bodies and 
wings of the males, which may completely cover the sticky 
portion. The use of these mechanical barriers or sticky bands 
are especially recommended on very large, rough-barked elms, 
or other trees that it would be difficult to spray or cultivate 
thoroughly. 

If no effort is made to prevent the moths from ascending the 
trees and laying their eggs, either in the fall or spring, the 
voracious caterpillars can be killed with a poison spray in May. 
This has been demonstrated many times, but only the most 
thorough kind of spraying will conquer a hungry army of canker- 
worms. The most effective work can be done by applying the 
spray early, when the caterpillars are young and will thus suc- 
cumb to a smaller dose of poison. Effective work has been done 
with Paris green at the rate of 1 pound in 100 gallons, but an 
arsenate of lead spray, 4 or 5 pounds in 100 gallons, has some ad- 
vantages. For apple trees make one application just before the 
blossoms open and a second after the petals fall ; if the work is 
thoroughly done, further applications will be rarely necessary. 
For shade trees, begin spraying as soon as the first leaves un- 
fold or the young canker-worms are seen, which is usually early 
in May. 

Under the modern system of fruit-growing, embodying 
thorough cultural and spraying methods, canker-worms will 
rarely find congenial conditions for their nefarious and destruc- 
tive work ; in fact they now seldom attract the attention of 
commercial growers. 

References 

Peek, Nat. Hist. Canker-worm. 1796. 

Harris, Insects Inj. Veg. pp. 332-343. 1841. 

Ohio Dept. Agr. Bull. 2. 1903. 

U. S. Bur. Ent. Bull. 68, Pt. II. 1907. 

Conn. Agr. Exp. Sta. Rept. for 1907-1908, pp. 777-796. 1909. 



86 



FRUIT INSECTS 




The Fall Canker-worm 

Alsophila pometaria Harris 

Although not distinguished from the spring canker-worm 
until 1873, this fall canker-worm doubtless has been injurious 

in the New England states 
for half a century or more. 
It is now common in 
Canada and throughout 
the northeastern United 
States, extending west- 
ward into Ohio ; and in 
1891, orchards of apple, 
prune, plum, apricot and 
cherry were ravaged in 
western California, ap- 
Fig. 87.— Fall canker-worm, male moth (x 2). parently by this eastern 

fall canker-worm. It is often de- 
structive in apple orchards, some- 
times working with the spring 
canker-worm or on neighboring 
orchard or shade trees; the two 
species have worked separately for 
several years on elm trees about a 
mile apart near Ithaca, N. Y. 

The fall canker-worm is easily 
distinguished in all its stages from 
the spring species, and differs also 
in its life-habits. It derived its 
common name from the fact that 
the moths usually emerge and lay 
their eggs in the fall, mostly in 
November; often a few, however, 




Fig. 88. - — Fall canker-worm, fe- 
male moth (X2f). 



APPLE INSECTS — BUDS AND FOLIAGE 



87 




and sometimes many, of the moths do not 
emerge until spring. The male moths 
are about the same size and resemble 
much those of the spring canker-worm, 
but their wings are of a darker smoky 
or brownish-gray color ; the fore wings 



Fig. 89. — Fall 
canker-worm moths 
laying eggs. Knight 
photo ( X 2) . 




Fig. 90. — Portion of an egg-mass of the fall 
canker-worm, greatly enlarged. 



have a distinct whitish spot on the front edge near the tip 
(Fig. 87). The wingless female moths are nearly \ an inch 
in length and of a uniform brown- 
ish-ash color (Fig. 88). There 
are no spines on the bodies of 

either the male 
or female fall 
Canker-worm 
moths. The dark 
grayish eggs re- 
semble tiny 
flower-pots or in- 
verted truncated 
cones, the flat- 
tened steel-gray 




Fig. 91.— Eggs of 
the fall canker-worm, 
side view, greatly en- 
larged. 




Fig. 92. — Fall canker-worm, 
full-grown caterpillar (X 2). 



88 



FRUIT INSECTS 



top marked by a darker ring and 
central spot (Figs. 90 and 91). They 
are laid in exposed positions on the 
bark (Fig. 89), mostly on the twigs, 
in flattened masses of from 100 to 
over 400, and are set close together 
on end in quite regular rows. 

The eggs hatch in April or May 
when the buds are opening, and the 
caterpillars work on the foliage for 
about a month in the same manner 
as the spring canker-worms. The 
full-grown fall canker-worms are 
about an inch in length, slender, 
of a general black color with the 
venter and all the legs light apple 
green (Figs. 92 and 93). Just below 
the spiracles there is a stripe of light 
lemon yellow, and above them on 
each side of the body are three nar- 
rower whitish stripes. There are 
93. --Fall canker-worms 3 pairs of pro-legs, but the first 
(x 1 ^)- pair are much smaller and are not 

used when the caterpillar loops or 
spans in walking. About June 1, 
most of the caterpillars spin down Jj 
from the trees and enter the ground 
from 1 to 4 inches, where they con- 
struct a thin but dense and tough 
silken cocoon in which the greenish- 
brown, somewhat tender pupae 
(Fig. 94) remain until November, 
or sometimes until the next spring. 

^ ° Fig. 94. — Pupae of fall canker- 
There is only one brood annually. worm. Enlarged. 




Fig. 





APPLE INSECTS — BUDS AND FOLIAGE 89 

Natural enemies. 

The eggs are sometimes devoured by a mite, Nothrus ovivorus, 
or a minute parasitic chalcid fly may develop in them. The 
chickadees often find many of the eggs or the egg-laden female 
moths on the bark. The caterpillars are attacked by a Tachina 
fly, and the same ground beetles and birds that devour the 
caterpillars of the spring canker-worm also include this species 
in their menu. 

Remedial measures. 

The remedial treatments for the fall canker-worm are the 
same as recommended for the spring canker-worm, but the sticky 
band or other barrier for preventing the ascent of the wingless 
female moths must be applied in the fall, in October, and kept 
in working condition until December, then renewed in Febru- 
ary or March to get the belated ones that may not emerge until 
spring. 

Further details regarding the habits, natural enemies and 
remedial treatments for this species, will be found in the pre- 
ceding more extended account of the spring canker-worm. 



The Lime-tree Span-worm 
Erannis tiliaria Harris 

This native American insect is widely distributed and com- 
mon in apple orchards, and on basswood, elm and other forest 
trees. It often works with both the spring and fall canker- 
worms in orchards, but is rarely so numerous and injurious. 
The moths appear in November and are active at night only. 
The practically wingless, yellowish-white females, nearly J 
an inch long, are marked with two rows of black spots down the 
back (Fig. 95) . The light, rusty buff-colored front wings of the 
male moth expand about 1| inches and are crossed by two nar- 
row, wavy, darker stripes ; the hind wings are much lighter 



90 



FRUIT INSECTS 



(Fig. 96). The females 
crawl up the trees and lay 
their oval, light greenish- 
yellow, finely pitted eggs 
(Fig. 97) from 1 to 5 in 
a place tucked away out of 
sight beneath the scaly bark 
or in crevices on the trunk 
and larger limbs. The eggs 
hatch in early spring, often 
in April, and some of the 
caterpillars continue feed- 
ing until nearly the middle 
of June. When full-grown 
they are nearly 1| inches 
long and the skin has a 
rough velvety appearance. 
The head is rusty red in 
color and much roughened. Along the back extend 10 narrow, 
crinkly, black stripes separated by similar light yellow stripes, 
the yellow rarely predominating. A broad lemon yellow 
stigmal stripe extends along each side, and the underside of 

the body, including the two 
pairs of pro-legs, is light yellow- 
ish-white in color (Fig. 98). 




Fig. 95. 



The lime-tree span-worm, female 
moth (X 3|). 







Fig. 96. — The lime-tree span-worm, Fig. 97. — Eggs of the lime-tree span- 
male moth. worm. Enlarged. 



APPLE INSECTS — BUDS AND FOLIAGE 



91 






Fig. 98. — Three views of the lime-tree span-worm caterpillar (X l£). 

Early in June the caterpillars are quite restless, and finally 
go into the ground an inch or more, where they transform to 
brown pupae (Fig. 99) in simple, earthen cells. Some of them 
pupate in May. There is but a single generation annually, 
the pupa stage continuing until November. 



92 



FRUIT INSECTS 




Fig. 99. — 
Pupa of the 
lime-tree span- 
worm. En- 
larged. 



Birds, especially the bluejay, get many of the 
caterpillars. The fiery and rummaging ground- 
beetles (Calosoma calidum and scrutator) also 
climb the infested trees and capture them. 

Remedial treatment. 

As its habits and life history are similar to 
those of the fall canker-worm, this lime-tree 
measuring-worm can be controlled by the same 
barrier and spraying methods. About a week 
before they go into the ground to transform, 
these large caterpillars are very restless and often 
either drop or are blown from the trees to the 
ground. In their wanderings and attempts to 
get on to the trees again, many have been caught 
in the wire- screen barriers applied earlier to pre- 
vent the ascent of the spring canker-worm moths. 



The Mottled Umber-moth 



Erannis defoliaria Clerck 

This common and destructive European orchard pest has 
established itself in British Columbia, and since 1893 it has been 
more or less destructive in plum and cherry orchards. The 
caterpillars are general feeders on various fruit and shade trees 
and often gnaw into unripe cherries in England. The life 
history and habits of this mottled umber-moth are very simi- 
lar to those of the American lime-tree span-worm, the moths 
emerging in November and the caterpillars working in June 
and early July in British Columbia. 

The European insect differs but little from the native species. 
The wingless females are brownish with rows of brown instead 
of black spots, and the dull ochre-brown front wings of the 
males are crossed by two wider dark waved bands, while the 



APPLE INSECTS — BUDS AND FOLIAGE 



93 



pale hind wings as well as the front ones are mottled with brown 
dots. Descriptions and figures of the caterpillars indicate 
that they are much like the lime-tree span-worms ; the dorsal 
region is described as reddish-brown instead of yellow between 
the black stripes and the spiracles are in the center of blotches 
of reddish-brown. 

A Tachina fly parasite is killing some of the caterpillars in 
British Columbia. This imported pest will doubtless succumb 
to the same remedial treatment as the native species. 



Bruce's Measuring-worm 



Rachela bruceata Hulst 

This insect was first described from western New York in 
1886, where a few years later it was quite injurious in apple 
orchards and on maple trees. 
Millions of the caterpillars ap- 
peared in Alberta, Canada, in 
1902, and the following year 
hundreds of acres of American 
aspen or poplar trees were de- 
nuded in June. The moths have 
been found in British Columbia 
also. 

The wingless female moths are 
about one third of an inch long, 
light brownish-gray, and closely 
resemble the females of the fall 
canker-worm, differing in being 
only about two thirds as large 

and in having slightly longer stubs of wings (Fig. 100). The 
winged male moths have a wing expanse of about If inches 
and are of a general very pale brownish color, the wing veins 




Fig. 100. — Bruce's measuring-worm, 
female moth (X 4). 



94 



FRUIT INSECTS 



being quite distinctly outlined by darker scales (Fig. 101). The 
moths emerge and go up the trees for egg-laying at night in 
October and November. The reddish-orange, oval, finely pitted 





Fig. 101. — Bruce's measuring-worm, mal3 
moth (xl|). 



Fig. 102. — Eggs of Bruce's 
measuring-worm. Enlarged. 



eggs (Fig. 102) are usually laid singly where readily seen in the 
crevices of bark scales on the trunk and larger branches (Fig. 103) . 
The eggs hatch in April, or as soon as the buds begin to open. 

The young canker-worms 
often bore into the buds and 
continue feeding for 4 or 5 
weeks. They seem to be par- 
ticularly fond of the opening 
flower buds on apple, and 
thus often ruin a prospective 
crop. The full-grown Bruce's 
canker-worms are about f of 
an inch long and of a general 
apple green color, with three 
narrow yellowish- white stripes 
along each side of the body 
(Fig. 104). There are two pairs of pro-legs, and the head, 
thoracic and anal shields, and a large spot on the anal pro-legs, 




Fig. 103. — Eggs of Bruce's measur- 
ing-worm tucked behind a bit of lichen 
on a tree trunk. Enlarged. 



APPLE INSECTS — BUDS AND FOLIAGE 



95 



are usually blackish, but sometimes nearly concolorous with the 
body in lighter colored specimens. 




Fig. 104. — Bruce's measuring-worm, full-grown caterpillars, slightly enlarged. 



By June 1, and sometimes a month before in earlier seasons, 
these canker-worms all enter the ground a short distance, and 



96 



FRUIT INSECTS 



in a slight silk-lined cocoon (Fig. 105) they soon transform to 
light brown pupae (Fig. 104) from which the moths do not 

emerge until autumn. Like the other 
kinds of measuring- worms known as can- 
ker-worms, there is thus but a single gen- 
eration of this species annually. It ap- 




Fig. 104 a.— 
Pupa of Bruce's 
measuring-worm . 
Enlarged. 




Fig. 105. — Cocoon of Bruce's measuring-worm. 



parently gets through with its destructive work a little earlier 
in the spring than the other canker-worms, and evinces a special 
fondness for the blossom buds. It can be controlled by the 
remedial measures recommended for the fall canker-worms. 



The Half-winged Geometer 
Phigalia titea Cramer 

About 1898 several kinds of canker-worms devastated apple 
orchards in western New York, and among them was this species, 
which we have designated the half-winged canker-worm, be- 
cause of the nearly half developed condition of the wings of the 
female moths. The insect is widely distributed from New York 
to Minnesota and includes among its food-plants, apple, black- 
berry, rose and several forest trees. It is rarely very numerous, 



APPLE INSECTS — BUDS AND FOLIAGE 



97 



but the peculiar cater- 
pillars and female moths 
often attract the atten- 
tion of the orchardist. 
The male moths are pale 
ash gray with 3 blackish- 
brown, narrow, trans- 
verse stripes across the 
front wings which expand 
nearly If inches ; the an- 
tenna? are strongly pec- 




Fig. 106. — The half-winged geometer, male 
moth (X l£). 



tinated (Fig. 106). The females are about f of an inch long, 
the hind wings reach to the second abdominal segment, and 
the body is clothed with a mixture of black, brown and white 
scales, the lighter scales predominating on the wings and 
underside (Fig. 107). 

The moths emerge and go up the trees at night in March 

and April, and one fe- 
male may lay 600 eggs. 
The slightly egg-shaped 
greenish eggs have a firm 
shell covered with a net- 
work of fine ridges form- 
ing 6-sided areas (Fig. 
108). The caterpillars 
are full-grown about the 
middle of June, when 
they are about If inches 
long, and of a general 
violaceous-brown color 
with a rough, black- 
mottled head. Eight 

Fig. 107. - The half-winged geometer, female P^S of narrow, irregular, 

moth ( x 2\) . black stripes extend along 

H 




98 



FRUIT INSECTS 



the body (Fig. 109), the four 
pairs on the underside being 
less distinct and ending at 
the first of the two pairs 
of pro-legs. The hair-bear- 
ing spots are elevated into 
shining black papillae, those 
in the hind row on the first 
four abdominal segments 
being considerably larger. 
These canker-worms pupate 
(Fig. 110) late in June in 
simple earthen cells in the 

soil, and the single annual life-cycle is completed when the 

moths emerge in autumn. 




Fig. 108. — Eggs of the half-wingod 
geometer. Enlarged. 








^l* '* : 2r ^ 


*K* 


•r 




J™"L-«g^ ::; : : '"*^>H£fc:. ; 






■ ;■■;::;■ v. 




^^^^ xx.'^aBP 


Ski 
■Rl3^9r '■■■^tjii 




■•-;,* 


Sr / 




Fig. 109. — Caterpillars of the half-winged 
geometer (X If). 



Fig. 110. — 
Pupa of the half- 
winged geometer. 
Enlarged. 



APPLE INSECTS— BUDS AND FOLIAGE 99 

This half- winged canker-worm will readily succumb to the 
same remedial treatments as advised for the fall canker-worm. 



The White Ennomid 

Ennomos subsignarius Hiibner 

This common and widespread measuring-worm often strips 
various forest trees and shrubs, and it has also defoliated apple 
orchards in Georgia and Kentucky. The moths are snow-white, 
with a wing-expanse of about 1 \ inches ; the males have strongly 
pectinate antennae. It is said that if a bird alights in a tree 
where the moths are numerous, they suddenly drop like snow- 
flakes to the ground for protection. The caterpillars also drop 
at the slightest jar and swing in the air by their silken threads. 
They are about If of an inch long, of a reddish-black color and 
have two pairs of pro-legs and three pairs of small tubercles 
on the back. The caterpillars transform through oddly granu- 
lated, brown-dotted pup 83 to the moths in about 10 days in 
May or June in one or more leaves rolled or loosely fastened 
together. The snow-white moths appear mostly in June and 
lay their pouch-shaped, greenish-olive eggs in large patches 
of a hundred or more on the undersides of the upper branches 
of the trees. The eggs are set on their rounded ends, the top 
being cut off rather squarely and marked with a narrow, white, 
oval ring surrounding a darker area. There is but one genera- 
tion annually, and about 9 months are spent in the egg stage, 
the eggs hibernating and hatching in April or May. 

This measuring-worm can be readily controlled in orchards 
by thoroughly spraying the trees in May when the caterpillars 
are small with arsenate of lead, 5 pounds in 100 gallons of water. 

Reference 
Cornell Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 286. 1910. 



100 



FRUIT INSECTS 



The White-marked Tussock-moth 
Hemerocampa leucostigma Smith and Abbot 

There are three species of these tussock-moths that may 
injuriously infest orchards. Two of these are native American 
insects and one is an old and common European species. 




Fig. 111. — Caterpillar of the white-marked tussock-moth, full-grown (XI3)' 



With their many hairs arranged in striking pencils, tufts 
and tussocks or brushes, the caterpillars of the white-marked 
tussock-moth present a very handsome and characteristic 
appearance (Fig. 111). They are about 1| inches long when 
full-grown and of a general dark gray color with a broad vel- 
vety black band bordered by yellow stripes on the back and a 
similar yellow stripe along each side below the spiracles. The 
head, thoracic shield and two raised glands on the back of the 
6th and 7th abdominal segments are bright Vermilion-red. 
Their striking characteristics are dense, brush-like, cream- 
colored tufts or tussocks of hairs on the back of each of the first 



APPLE INSECTS — BUDS AND FOLIAGE 



101 




Fig. 112. — Pupae of 
marked tussock-moth. 



the white- 
Enlarged. 



four abdominal segments, and 

pencils of long plume-tipped black 

hairs projecting from each side 

of the first thoracic segment and 

from the back of the eighth 

abdominal segment. These 

strikingly beautiful caterpillars 

are common in orchards, espe- 
cially on apple, pear, quince and 

plum trees, in Canada and over 

the eastern half of the United 

States. Considerable injury often 

results from their work on the foliage in orchards, and 

in one case 25 per cent of the apples were ruined by the 

caterpillars gnawing into the sides. But the insect often be- 
comes a far more de- 
structive and formidable 
pest in cities and towns 
on shade trees, especially 
the horse chestnut, pop- 
lar and elm. 

In the North there is 
but a single annual brood, 
but in southern New 
York and southward 
there are two or three 
broods. The caterpillars 
feed mostly from the un- 
derside of the leaves dur- 
ing June, and in July 
they transform to pupae 
(Fig. 112) in their silken 
cocoons, in which their 
long hairs are inter- 




Fig. 113. — Female white-marked tussock- 
moths depositing egg-masses on cocoons. 




102 FRUIT INSECTS 

woven, on the bark in the crotches of the trees or on fences 
or houses near by. In about two weeks the moths emerge. 
The hairy, grub-like, light-grayish females have mere stubs 
of wings, and usually remain on their empty cocoons until 

after they mate and lay a 
mass of from 150 to over 700 
eggs thereon (Fig. 113). The 
nearly spherical, yellowish- 
white eggs are covered by a 
mass of conspicuous white, 
frothy material. The ashy- 
gray colored male moths have 
feathery antennae and well 
developed wings, which ex- 
pand about If inches (Fig. 
114). The front wings are 

Fig. 114. — Male white-marked tussock- 

mo th. crossed by undulated bands 

of darker shades and bear a 
conspicuous white spot near the anal angle, hence the name 
leucostigma or white-marked. The winter is always passed 
in the egg stage, the caterpillars hatching late in May in 
New York. 

Natural enemies. 

This tussock-moth is beset by many enemies. At least 10 
different birds eat the caterpillars and doubtless do much to 
keep the insect in check in orchards and the open country. 
Several species of shield-bugs and the southern wheel-bug 
attack the caterpillars and pupae ; the pupae are also eaten by 
small red ants. The grubs of two Dermestid beetles and a 
species of mite may devour the eggs. And as many as 90 per 
cent of the caterpillars and pupae sometimes fall a prey to more 
than 20 different kinds of hymenopterous and dipterous in- 
sect parasites, the most effective of these little enemies being 
Pimpla inquisitor, Chalcis ovata, Tachina mella, Frontina frenchii, 



APPLE INSECTS — BUDS AND FOLIAGE 103 

and Euphorocera claripennis. Unfortunately, however, there 
are 14 hyper-parasites which work on the true parasites and 
thus materially lessen their effectiveness. There are also ter- 
tiary parasites which destroy these hyper-parasites, thus pre- 
senting a very complicated and interesting case of insect 
parasitism. 

Remedial measures. 

A practicable and effective method of controlling this pest is 
to collect and burn the eggs in autumn or winter. The grayish 
egg-masses are quite conspicuous on the bark and they are often 
attached to a dead leaf or two fastened to the branches. Where 
shade trees are infested in cities, it will pay to employ laborers 
to collect the eggs, and sometimes the school children can be 
induced to do very effective work by offering prizes or by paying 
liberally for certain quantities of the egg-masses. The latter 
method was employed successfully several years ago in Rochester, 
N. Y., during a severe outbreak of the pest. 

Before they are half -grown the beautiful caterpillars will 
succumb to thorough applications of a strong poison spray, such 
as Paris green (1 pound in 100 gallons) or arsenate of lead (5 or 6 
pounds in 100 gallons) . One or two applications of such a spray 
will usually control this pest. Later when the caterpillars are 
larger, the poison is not so effective. As the caterpillars drop 
to the ground by a silken thread when the tree is jarred, some 
orchardists have found it practicable to capture them on cur- 
culio-catchers or sheets. Or after jarring them off, they can 
be prevented from ascending the trees by means of a sticky 
rope band around the trunk. Treat the rope with a tangle- 
foot mixture of resin and castor oil, as recommended for canker- 
worm bands. 

References 

U. S. Bur. Ent. Tech, Bull. 5. 1897. Parasites. 
U. S. Farmers' Bull. 99, pp. 14-31. 1899. 
Del. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 56, pp. 9-18. 1902. 
N. Y. (Geneva) Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 312. 1909. 



104 FRUIT INSECTS 

The California Tussock-moth 
Hemerocampa vetusta Boisduval 

This native California tussock caterpillar has been recorded 
only from that state, where it is common on live oak and yellow 
lupin trees, and has injuriously infested apple and cherry or- 
chards. There is but a single brood annually, the moths appear- 
ing in May, June and July and laying their eggs on their empty 
cocoons in light grayish masses covered with hairs from the 
mother's body. Some of the egg-clusters hatch as early as 
February, while others may not until April or May. The cater- 
pillars feed on the foliage from one and a half to two months. 
They have black heads, crimson hair-bearing warts and pro-legs, 
and the four tussocks or brush-like tufts of hairs on the back are 
often dark gray with brownish crests. The practically wingless 
grub-like female moths have dark brown bodies covered with 
sordid white hairs. The males resemble those of the antique 
tussock-moth but are of a darker chestnut-brown color. The 
general life-habits of this California tussock-moth are similar to 
those of the two eastern species. 

Natural enemies. 

Tachina flies and other parasites sometimes destroy half of 
the caterpillars and pupae, but the birds do not seem to eat them 
to any extent in California. The grubs of a Dermestid beetle 
devour some of the eggs, and others are parasitized by a minute 
hymenopterous insect, Telenomus orgyice. 

Remedial treatments. 

Poison sprays are reported as not very effective against the 
caterpillars in California, the older ones after eating poisoned 
foliage being able to transform to the moths. The measures 
recommended are the collecting and destroying of the eggs 
during the winter season, and the beating or jarring of the 
caterpillars from the trees, then preventing their ascent with 






APPLE INSECTS — BUDS AND FOLIAGE 



105 



sticky rope bands, as described for the white-marked tussock- 
moth. 

Reference 

Cal. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 183. 1907. 




Fig. 115. — The antique tussock-moth, full-grown 

caterpillar. 



The Antique Tussock-moth 
Notolophus antiqua Linnaeus 

This common European pest has been more or less injurious 
in America on shade trees and in orchards for nearly a century. 
It is often seen in 
Nova Scotia, the 
New England states 
and also occurs as 
far westward as 
Washington. The 
caterpillars resemble 
those of the white- 
marked tussock- 
moth, but the head 
is black, and the first two tussocks or brushes of hairs on the 
back are black on the young caterpillars, but become whitish 
in later stages (Fig. 115) After the third stage there is also 
an additional pencil of long, black, plume-tipped hairs pro- 
jecting from each side of the second abdominal segment. 

In its life history this species differs but little from that of 
the white-marked tussock-moth. There is a single brood 
annually in its northern range, the eggs hibernate, but there 
is no covering on the egg-masses laid on the cocoons. In Eng- 
land it is said that a few of the eggs hatch at a time over a period 
of 10 weeks, but they seem to hatch uniformly in America. 
The grub-like, practically wingless female moths have blackish 
bodies covered with yellowish-white hairs. The males have 
rust-brown colored wings, the front ones being crossed by two 



106 FRUIT INSECTS 

deeper brown bands and having a very conspicuous white spot 
near the anal angle. 

This antique tussock-moth is attacked by many of the same 
enemies as the white-marked tussock-moth, and it can be con- 
trolled by the same remedial measures. 



The Oriental Moth 

Cnidocampa flavescens Walker 

This is an Asiatic insect which was apparently introduced into 
Massachusetts on nursery stock from Japan some time before 
1900, but its presence was not discovered until February, 1906. 
One of the peculiar cocoons of this moth has also been found 
in an Albany, New York greenhouse on imported Japanese 
maples. It seems to prefer to feed on the foliage of Norway 
maples, but pear, apple and cherry are often infested, and it 
includes a dozen other shade and forest trees among its food- 
plants. The yellowish-red, slug caterpillars are armed with 
rows of spiny tubercles or horns, and are about f of an inch long. 
They hibernate in curious tough, smooth, oval-shaped cocoons, 
a little more than \ an inch in length, fastened firmly to the 
bark, mostly on the smaller branches in or near the axil of a 
branch. The cocoons are strikingly colored, with whitish and 
brown often so mingled as to suggest certain oriental designs. 
There is a brown lid at one end which is pushed open by the 
pupa late in June when the moth emerges. There is but one 
brood annually, the cocoons being made in September or Octo- 
ber. The pretty moths have a wing expanse of nearly \\ inches, 
the head, thorax and inner half of the front wings above being 
of a dull chrome yellow color, while the upper portion of the 
outer half is light chestnut brown with a yellowish tinge and the 
lower half is tinged with pink. 

While the oriental moth belongs to a family, the Cochlidiidae, 



APPLE INSECTS — BUDS AND FOLIAGE 107 

the members of which are not usually of economic importance, 
its natural enemies probably were not introduced with it into 
this country, and it is maintaining itself and slowly spreading 
in Massachusetts. Judging from its range in Asia, the insect 
can live almost anywhere in the United States as far as climate 
is concerned. Whether it ever becomes a serious pest in 
America, especially on fruit trees, only the future can reveal, 
but the probabilities are that it will not. 

The caterpillars will doubtless succumb to a thorough appli- 
cation of a strong poison, like arsenate of lead, 4 pounds in 100 
gallons of water, and it would be practicable to prune off and 
destroy the curious cocoons in winter or early spring on small 

trees. 

Reference 

Mass. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 114. 1907. 

The Fall Webworm 
Hyphantria cunea Drury 

The unsightly nests of this caterpillar are familiar objects in 
late summer on a large number of forest and shade trees (Fig. 
116). Economically this insect is of greater importance as a 
shade tree pest in cities than as an enemy of fruit trees, but 
occasionally its attacks on apple and pear are sufficiently severe 
to cause considerable loss. It feeds on over one hundred differ- 
ent trees and is distributed over the Eastern states from Georgia 
and Texas to Montana and Canada ; it also occurs in Califor- 
nia. In the North, where only one generation develops annually, 
it only occasionally causes serious injury to fruit trees, but 
from southern New York southward, where there are two full 
generations, orchards are sometimes completely stripped of 
their leaves. In the South it sometimes becomes a serious 
enemy of the pecan. 

The winter is passed by the reddish-brown pupae, J inch in 



108 



FRUIT INSECTS 



length, in thin cocoons placed in crevices of the bark, under 
trash, or just beneath the surface of the ground. The emer- 
gence of the moths extends over a considerable period, from 
early June until the middle of August in New York. The webs 
begin to become conspicuous in July and are most abundant 

in August (Fig. 117). 
In the District of 
Columbia the first 
brood of moths ap- 
pears soon after the 
leaves are fully 'de- 
veloped ; that is, 
about June first, the 
second brood occur- 
ring in July and 
August. 

The moths expand 
about 1| inches and 
vary in color from 
satiny white to white 
heavily spotted with 
black or brownish 
spots. Some of these 
forms have received 
specific names, but 
it is now generally 
believed that we have only one species which is highly vari- 
able. More recently Dr. H. H. Lyman has attempted to 
separate two forms on the color of the larvae, but the evidence 
presented is hardly convincing. More extensive rearings are 
greatly needed. 

The moth lays her pale green eggs in clusters on the upper 
or under surface of the leaves, and covers the cluster with white 
hairs from her body (Fig. 118). The cluster is about f inch 




Fig. 116. — Fall webworm, beginning of a nest. 



APPLE INSECTS — BUDS AND FOLIAGE 



109 




in diameter and 
contains 300 or 400 
eggs. The egg is 
globular, gV mcn m 
diameter, and has 
a delicate thimble- 
like sculpture. The 
eggs of the first 
brood hatch in 
about 10 days and 
those of the second 
in about a week 
after deposition. 

Soon after hatch- 
ing the extremely 
hairy young cater- 
pillars begin feeding Fig. 1 17. - Fall webworm, nest. 

on the leaves, usually at the end of a branch, which they 
inclose in a silken web. At first they feed only under cover 
of the web, which is enlarged to inclose more foliage as 

there is need of fresh food. When 
the caterpillars become larger they 
leave the nest at night and feed in 
the open. As food becomes scarce 
on a branch, all or part of a colony 
may migrate to another branch, 
where a new nest is formed, or in 
case the whole tree has been de- 
foliated, they may crawl to another 
tree. 

The full-grown caterpillars (Fig. 
119) are about li inches in length 
with a broad dusky stripe along the back and usually with 
yellowish sides thickly spotted with small blackish dots. A 




Fig. 118. — The fall webworm, 
moth laying eggs. 



110 



FRUIT INSECTS 




Fig. 119. — Full-grown fall webworm caterpillars. Slightly enlarged. 



APPLE INSECTS — BUBS AND FOLIAGE 111 

darker form occurs in which the yellow on the sides is entirely- 
obscured, and the whole caterpillar is of a dull dusky color, 
but all gradations are found. 

Natural enemies. 

Few birds feed on these hairy caterpillars to any great extent. 
Among predaceous insects their most important enemies are 
the Mantis {Mantis Carolina) and the wheel-bug (Prionidus 
cristatus), both abundant in the South. Of true parasites 
the most important are Telenomus bifidus Riley, attacking 
the eggs, Meteorus hyphantria? Riley, Apanteles hyphantrice 
Riley, and Limneria pallipes Prov., attacking the cater- 
pillars. Good work is also done by an unnamed Tachinid-fly. 
Unfortunately the efficiency of this series of parasites is greatly 
lessened by the great number of secondary parasites, which 
prey upon them. Under favorable conditions great numbers of 
the caterpillars are killed by a fungous disease, Empusa grylli. 

Remedial measures. 

In the forest we must depend on its natural enemies to hold 
this pest in check. On shade trees in cities spraying with an 
arsenical poison and a thorough and timely removal of the 
small webs while the caterpillars are still young will do much 
to prevent serious damage. Especial attention should be given 
to the destruction of the first generation, thereby lessening 
the difficulty of controlling the second. In orchards where 
arsenical spraying is regularly practiced most of the first brood 
of caterpillars will be destroyed. The webs should be cut out 
or burned out with a torch as soon as observed. This can be 
done most easily while they are small and before any large 
branches have been included in the nest. The webs should be 
destroyed during the day while practically all the caterpillars 
are within. 

References 

Riley, Rept. U. S. Com. Agr. 1886, pp. 518-539. 
Lyman, 32d Rept. Ent. Soc. Ont., pp. 57-62. 1902. 



112 FRUIT INSECTS 

Del. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 56. 1902. 

Felt, Forest Insects, I, pp. 142-146. 1905. 

Berger, U. S. Bur. Ent. Bull. 60, pp. 41-51. 



1906. 



The Apple-tree Tent-caterpillar 

Malacosoma americana Fabricius 

The unsightly nests (Fig. 120) of this caterpillar are con- 
spicuous objects on wild cherry trees and in neglected orchards. 




Fig. 120. — The nest of the apple-tree tent-caterpillar. 

This species occurs in the Eastern states and Canada, ranging 
westward to the Rocky Mountains, where it is replaced by other 
forms. It occurs sparingly in California. Its favorite food 






APPLE INSECTS — BUDS AND FOLIAGE 



113 



is the wild cherry, although it will attack apple, peach, plum, 
and more rarely, witch-hazel, beech, birch, barberry, oak, 
willow and poplar. When excessively abundant apple trees 
are frequently completely defoliated and killed (Fig. 121). 
Destructive outbreaks usually continue for two or three years 




Fig. 121. — Tree defoliated by apple-tree tent-caterpillars. 

only and are then followed by a longer period during which the 
species is rarely noticed. This periodic fluctuation is thought 
to be the result of complicated interrelations existing between 
the caterpillar and its parasites, and is a striking illustration 
of the ups and downs of insect life. 



114 



FRUIT INSECTS 



The winter is spent 
in the egg stage, al- 
though the embryo is 
fully developed in the 
fall. The eggs are 
elongate, thimble- 
shaped, about 2V mcn 
long and are laid in 
masses of over 300 to 
400, usually encircling 
a small branch as a 
broad band (Fig. 122). 
The whole egg-mass is 
Fig. 122. covered by a brownish 

— Egg-mass . „ , . 

of the apple- gluey froth, which 
tree tent-cat- protects it from the 

erpillar cut 

open to show weather. About the 
e ss s - time the first buds open 

the eggs hatch and the 
young larvae begin to feed on the 
opening leaves. The larvae are 





Fig. 



124. — Cocoons of the apple-tree 
tent-caterpillar ( X f ) . 



Fig. 123. — Full-grown apple- 
tree tent-caterpillars (X 1$). 

social, and all those from a single egg-cluster remain together 
and soon begin a silken nest.' Sometimes when two egg-masses 



APPLE INSECTS — BUDS AND FOLIAGE 



115 



are placed close together the 
two colonies unite in forming 
a common nest. The nest is 
at first small, but gradually 
enlarges as the caterpillars 
grow larger, until in some 
cases it may be nearly two 
feet in length. 

During storms and the heat 
of the day the caterpillars 
usually remain within the 
nest, coming out to feed 
early in the morning, in the 






Fig. 126. — Male moths of the apple- 
tree tent-caterpillar. 



Fig. 125. — Pupae of the apple-tree 
tent-caterpillar (X 3). 

evening, or at night when it 
is not too cold. The full- 
grown caterpillar is about two 
inches long, black with a light 
stripe down the back and with 
dots of blue and white along 
the sides, and is clothed with 
fine, soft, yellowish hairs (Fig. 
123). When nearly full-grown 
they wander from the nest, and 
after feeding for a few days 
more crawl to some protected 
place and spin their cocoons. 

The oval, white cocoons are 
about one inch in length (Fig. 
124). They are made of tough , 
closely woven, white silk, and 
are held in place by a few 
irregular coarser threads. The 



116 



FRUIT INSECTS 



newly made cocoon is dusted over with a yellowish powder. 
A few days after finishing the cocoon the larva transforms into 
a brownish pupa, f to £ inch in length, which is clothed with a 
brownish pubescence except on the sheaths of wings and legs 
(Fig. 125). The pupal period lasts about three weeks. 




Fig. 127. — Male and female moths of the apple-tree tent-caterpillar. 

In New York the majority of the moths emerge during the 
last week of June and the first week of July, and the eggs are 
laid soon after. There is but one generation a year, from 
July till April being spent in the egg stage. The moths are 
dull, reddish-brown, marked on the front wings by two nearly 
parallel oblique whitish lines (Figs. 126 and 127). The females 
expand 1| to 2 inches ; the males are slightly smaller and of a 
darker brown. 

Natural enemies. 

The tent caterpillar is held in check by a long series of para- 






APPLE INSECTS — BUDS AND FOLIAGE 117 

sites which prey upon it in the egg, larval and pupal stages. 
This control is so effective that for many years the insect is 
rarely noticed. Then the time comes when, owing to the rarity 
of the host, the parasites are reduced in numbers to a still 
greater degree, and the caterpillars again have an opportunity 
to multiply unchecked. The resultant outbreak may be very 
serious, as was the case in New York and New England in 1897 
and 1899. Four species of parasites have been reared from 
the egg and over 20 from the larva and pupa. Birds and toads 
also feed on the caterpillars to a considerable extent, and many 
nearly full-grown larvae die of a bacterial disease. 

Means of control. 

In orchards which are well sprayed as for the codlin-moth 
and curculio, tent-caterpillars are rarely troublesome. The 
young larvae are readily poisoned by either Paris green or 
arsenate of lead. On peach and plum, which are not commonly 
sprayed with an arsenical, it will pay to keep careful watch for 
the conspicuous egg-rings while pruning. They should be re- 
moved and burned. 

The nests may be destroyed by wiping out with the hands. 
It should be done while the caterpillars are at home, which is 
usually the case during stormy weather and in the heat of the 
day. Burning out the nests is not to be recommended as there 
is danger of injuring the tree ; burned areas in the bark often 
develop cankers that may destroy the whole branch. 

The wild cherry is the favorite food-plant of this insect. 
When growing along roadsides and fences and in other waste 
places these trees are usually worthless and should be cut down, 
as they serve as centers of infestation for near-by orchards. 

References 

N. Y. (Geneva) Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 152, pp. 279-297. 1898. 

Conn. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 139. 1902. 

N. H. Agr. Exp. Sta. Tech. Bull. 6. 1903. Parasites. 



118 



FRUIT INSECTS 



The Western Tent-caterpillar 

Malacosoma fragilis Stretch 

From the Rocky Mountains westward the apple-tree tent- 
caterpillar is replaced by a number of forms all very much alike 
in habits and in the form and coloration of the moths. The 
caterpillars, however, are different. From the Rockies to the 
Sierras and from Mexico to Canada the dominant form is 

M. fragilis. It forms a 
web like its eastern rela- 
tive and has a similar life 
history. 

In Colorado the larvae 
become full-grown by July 
1, and the moths emerge 
and lay their eggs during 
the latter part of the 
month. The full-grown 
larva is similar to the 
eastern form but is pale 




Fig. 128. — Western tent-caterpillars. 



blue or blue-gray on the sides, and the median line has a 
row of bluish spots instead of the whitish line (Fig. 128). 
The species is single brooded. The larvae feed on apple, wil- 
low, poplar, wild cherry, wild rose and wild gooseberry. 

Control. 

The same remedial measures are suggested for this species 
as for the apple-tree tent-caterpillar. 

Another species, Malacosoma pluvialis Dyar occurs in the 
Pacific Northwest. Very little is known concerning it except 
that in habits and life history it does not differ greatly from the 
other species. 

Reference 
Ore. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 33. 1894. 



APPLE INSECTS — BUDS AND FOLIAGE 



119 



The Forest Tent-caterpillar 
Malacosoma disstria Hubner 

The common name of this species is a misnomer, for the cater- 
pillars do not construct a true tent, as in the case of the pre- 
ceding species. It is closely related to the apple-tree tent- 
caterpillar, and has a similar life history, but its habits are 
decidedly different. Its range extends throughout the United 
States and Canada and it has been reported from Mexico. It 
is naturally a forest in- 
sect, the maple being 
its favorite food plant. 
When unusually abun- 
dant, however, it attacks 
a large number of trees 
and shrubs, and in the 
orchard feeds on the 
apple, plum, peach, 
cherry and pear. Severe 
outbreaks occur at 

rather long intervals and usually last for only two or three 
years. In 1898 and 1899 a very extensive and severe outbreak 
occurred in New York and New England ; the caterpillars de- 
foliated thousands of acres of forest and did great damage in 
fruit orchards. They also appeared in destructive numbers 
in 1912 and 1913. 

The winter is passed in the egg stage (Fig. 129). The eggs 
hatch in early spring and the young caterpillars feed in colonies 
on the opening leaves. They leave a silken thread wherever 
they go and in this way the colony frequently webs in some of 
the leaves where they are feeding. These slight webs are not 
true tents ; they are never entered by the caterpillars and are 
not used for protection. When not feeding or when preparing 




Fig. 129. 



Egg-rings of the forest tent-cater- 
pillar. 



120 



FRUIT INSECTS 



for molting the larvae congregate in masses on the branches or 

trunk (Fig. 131). 

When the caterpillars become nearly full-grown they become 

restless and wander 
away to feed singly 
for some days. The 
full-grown cater- 
pillar is about two 
inches long and is 
easily distinguished 
from the apple-tree 
tent-caterpillar by 
having a median 
row of wedge- 
shaped or club- 
shaped cream-col- 
ored spots instead 
of the continuous 
median whitish 
stripe present in 
that species (Fig. 
130). On the ab- 
dominal segments 
these spots are 
broken into two un- 
equal parts, which 
gives them the ap- 
pearance of a row 
of exclamation 
marks. In New 
York the caterpil- 
lars become full- 




Fig. 130. — Full-grown forest tent-caterpillars ( X If) . 



grown in late May and early June, depending on the season. 
The cocoons are made of white silk, the outer layers being 



APPLE INSECTS — BUDS AND FOLIAGE 



121 



t f > 



\ 



soft and fluffy and dusted with a yellowish powder (Fig. 132). 
Most of the cocoons are placed in curled leaves, but many are 
found in other more or less protected situations. In New York 
the moths emerge and lay their eggs the last week of June and 
the first of July. The moths 
are similar to those of the apple- 
tree tent- caterpillar, but the 
oblique bands across the front 
wings are brown instead of 
whitish (Fig. 133). The eggs 
closely resemble those of that 
species, but the egg-rings are 
smaller and more abruptly 
rounded off at the ends. Each 
egg-mass contains from 150 to 
over 400 eggs. The young cater- 
pillar becomes fully formed by 
the end of August but remains 
within the egg until the follow- 
ing spring. 

Natural enemies. 

The caterpillars are preyed 
upon by several kinds of birds 
and by toads. Two predaeeous 
beetles, Calosoma scrutator Fab. 
and C. calidum Fab., feed on the 
larvae as do two of the sucking 
bugs, Podisus placidus Uhler and 
P. serieventris Uhler. A number 
of hymenopterous and dipterous parasites prey on the cater- 
pillars and are valuable aids in holding the pest in check. 
The most important of these are, Pimpla conquisitor Say, 
Pimpla inquisitor, Anomolon exile Prov., Tachina mella Walk. 
A mite also destroys the eggs. 







Fig. 131. — A mass of forest tent- 
caterpillars resting on a tree trunk. 



122 



FRUIT INSECTS 




4f" 




". J 



Fig. 132. — Cocoons of the forest tent-caterpillar. 



Fig 



Methods of control. 

In the forest little can be done to fight this insect. As a 

shade tree pest in villages and 
cities spraying with arsenate of 
lead, 8 pounds to 100 gallons of 
water, while the larvae are still 
small, would be effective. The 
cocoons should be collected when- 
ever found and placed in a box 
covered with T 3 g- inch mesh screen, 
which will permit the escape of 
the parasites while retaining the 
moths. In some towns children 
have been hired to collect the 
133. -Female moth of the cocoons at ten cents a quart with 

forest tent-caterpillar. excellent results. 




APPLE INSECTS — BUDS AND FOLIAGE 



123 



In orchards where arsenical spraying is practiced, as for the 
codlin-moth, the young caterpillars are killed before doing 
much injury. On small trees they may be jarred off on to 
sheets or curculio-catchers and destroyed. When molting, and 
during the heat of the day, the caterpillars collect in large 
masses on the trunk and branches, where they may be readily 
brushed down and crushed. After defoliating a piece of wood- 
land the caterpillars frequently migrate to near-by orchards 
in countless numbers. Banding the trunks with tree tangle foot 
or loose cotton bands will prevent the ascent of these wandering 
larvae. The egg-rings are easily seen while pruning, especially 
on small trees. They should be removed and burned, for if 
thrown on the ground the young larvae may be able to crawl to 
the tree and so survive. 

References 
N. Y. (Geneva) Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 159. 1899. 



The Yellow-necked Apple Caterpillar 

. Datana ministra Drury 

In the Northern states and Canada apple branches are often 
defoliated in late summer by colonies of black and yellow striped 
caterpillars about two inches 
in length when mature; the 
head is black and the next 
segment is yellow, whence the 
common name. While a few 
colonies are found every year 
they are only occasionally 
abundant enough to do serious 
damage. Besides the apple, 
this caterpillar also attacks 
pear, cherry, and quince, as well as many forest trees. 




Fig. 134. — Moth of the yellow-necked 
apple caterpillar. Nat. size. 



124 



FRUIT INSECTS 




Fig. 135. — Yellow-necked apple caterpillars in rest- 
ing position. 



The moths ap- 
pear in June and 
July in New York ; 
they have an ex- 
panse of from If to 
2 inches ; the front 
wings are cinna- 
mon-brown, crossed 
by three or four dis- 
tinct darker lines ; 
the hind wings are 
pale straw-color, 
and the front of the 
thorax is a rich 



reddish-brown (Fig. 134). The female deposits her white, 
ovoid eggs in a flat cluster of from 25 to 100 on the underside 
of the leaves. The 
young caterpillars 
are chestnut-brown 
in color with obscure 
darker stripes. At 
first they feed en- 
tirely on the under- 
side of the leaves, 
but after the second 
molt they begin eat- 
ing the edge of the 
leaves. The seg- 
ment behind the 
head now becomes 
orange or yellow 
and the body is dis- 
tinctly striped with 
black and yellow 




Fig. 136. 



Cluster of yellow-necked apple cater- 
pillars. 



APPLE INSECTS — BUDS AND FOLIAGE 



125 



and sparsely clothed with rather long whitish hairs. The 
caterpillars always feed in colonies and soon strip a branch 
of its leaves. When disturbed they have the curious habit 
of bending back the front part of the body 
with a jerky motion and at the same time elevat- 
ing the hind end of the body as shown in Figure 
135. They become full-grown in August and 
September, and enter the ground for a few inches 
and there transform to brownish pupae (Fig. 137) a 
little less than an inch in length, without forming 
cocccns. There is only one brood annually. 

Control. 

The work of these caterpillars is so conspicuous 
that it is easy to locate them. On small trees it 
is perfectly practicable to shake them off and crush P * G " of t j^ 
them on the ground. On larger trees the young yellow - necked 
caterpillars can be killed by spraying with arse- p-^/ cat EnI 
nate of lead, 4 or 5 pounds in 100 gallons of water, larged. 




References 

Beutenmuller, Can. Ent. XX, pp. 16-17. 1888. 
N. H. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 139, pp. 213-215. 1908. 



The Red-humped Apple Caterpillar 

Schizura concinna Smith and Abbot 

Feeding in colonies at the ends of the branches like the pre- 
ceding species the red-humped apple caterpillar often attracts 
attention in August and September. It is rarely a serious 
pest on older trees but the caterpillars sometimes defoliate 
young trees in August and thus prevent the proper ripening of 
the wood. It attacks apple, cherry, plum, apricot, pear, black- 
berry and a number of forest trees. 

In the Northern states the inconspicuous grayish-brown 



126 



FRUIT INSECTS 



moths fly in June and July. The female has an expanse of 
about If inches ; the male is a little smaller and more distinctly 
marked. The female deposits her white, nearly round, slightly 











K , mfA ■'. 








\s&*"; ; *^f 




Fig. 138. — Moth of the red- 
humped apple caterpillar. Nat. 
size. 



Fig. 139. — Egg-mass of the 
red-humped apple caterpillar. 
Enlarged. 




flattened eggs in clusters of 40 to 100 on the underside of the 
leaves (Fig. 139). The young caterpillars feed at first on the 
underside of the leaves only, but as they grow larger eat the 

edges of the leaves. 
They feed in col- 
onies and are soon 
able to strip a 
branch of its leaves. 
When full-grown 
the caterpillars are 
an inch or more in 
length ; the head is 
coral red, the body 
is striped with black 
and yellow or whitish lines and on the fourth segment there 
is a prominent reddish hump (Fig. 140). The body is 
ornamented with rows of blunt black tubercles, largest on the 




Fig. 140. — Red-humped apple caterpillars feeding. 



APPLE INSECTS — BUDS AND FOLIAGE 127 

hump. When at rest the tip of the body is held in an elevated 
position. 

In the North, there is only one brood, the caterpillars ma- 
turing in August and September. They construct slight 
cocoons under trash on the ground and as a rule remain in the 
larval condition through the winter, pupating the following 
May or June. In the South where there are two broods, the 
first brood of caterpillars may form their cocoons in curled 
leaves. 

The red-humped apple caterpillar may be controlled by the 

measures recommended for the yellow-necked apple caterpillar 

(page 125). 

References 

Mass. (Hatch) Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 28, pp. 17-19. 1895. 
Packard, Nat. Ac. Sci., VII, pp. 212-217. 1895. 



The Saddled Prominent 
Heterocampa guttivitta Walker 

While generally distributed throughout the northern and 
eastern United States this beautiful green saddle-marked 
caterpillar had never attracted attention by its injuries until 
the outbreak of 1907-1908 in New York, Vermont, New Hamp- 
shire and Maine, where large areas of forests were defoliated. 
It is primarily a forest insect feeding on the beech, birch, maple 
and oak, but is also destructive to the apple. 

In Maine the parent moths emerge the latter part of May 
and during June. The moth has an expanse of about two 
inches ; it is brownish-gray in color and the front wings are 
crossed by indistinct darker lines. The female deposits her 
smooth, pale green, slightly flattened eggs singly on the leaves. 
They hatch in about nine days. The young caterpillars in 
the first stage bear nine pairs of black horns along the back; 
the first pair back of the head are much longer than the others 



128 FRUIT INSECTS 

and branched like antlers, whence the name antlered maple 
caterpillar, sometimes given to this species. At first they 
merely skeletonize the leaves, but after the first molt, feed at 
the edge of the leaf, eating out portions between the larger 
veins. The full-grown caterpillar is about lj inches in length, 
and varies greatly in coloration. They are usually pale green 
and have a conspicuous saddle-shaped mark on the third to 
the fourth abdominal segments. The tip of the abdomen 
tapers to a point and is usually held in an elevated position. 
The caterpillars do not cling tightly to the branches and may 
be readily shaken to the ground. They become full-grown 
in about five weeks, having molted four times; they then 
descend to the ground, where, just below the surface or under 
the leaf mold, they construct a slight cocoon of silk, within 
which they change to pupa?, remaining in this condition until 
the following spring. There is but one brood annually in Maine. 

Control. 

In the orchard the saddled prominent may be easily destroyed 
by spraying the trees with arsenate of lead, 4 pounds in 100 
gallons of water, soon after the eggs hatch. In case the or- 
chard adjoins woodland or other untreated trees, it may be 
found advisable to band the trunks with some sticky material 
like " tree tanglefoot " to prevent the ascent of wandering 

caterpillars. 

References 

Maine Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 161. 1908. 

N. H. Agr. Exp. Sta. 19th & 20th Repts., pp. 514-531. 1908. 

The Gipsy Moth 

Porthetria dispar Linnaeus 

The gipsy moth is a native of Europe, Asia and northern 
Africa, where it has long been recognized as a serious enemy of 
orchard and forest trees. There its outbreaks are periodic 



APPLE INSECTS — BUDS AND FOLIAGE 



129 



and often very severe, vast areas of forests are sometimes 
devastated and many park and orchard trees either killed or 
seriously injured. It was introduced into Massachusetts in 
1869 at Medford near Boston by a French naturalist who was 
conducting experi- 
ments with silk- 
worms. Some of the 
insects accidentally 
escaped and became 
established in the 
immediate vicinity 
but did not attract 
particular attention 
for about twenty 
years. In 1889, 
however, the cater- 
pillars appeared in 
enormous numbers, 
defoliated many 
forest, shade and 
orchard trees, and 
excited great alarm 
among the residents 
of the region. At 
first the state at- 
tempted to exter- 
minate the pest, ex- 
pending large sums 

of money for that purpose, but in 1900 abandoned the proj- 
ect and left the gipsy moth to breed and spread unmo- 
lested until 1905, when the enormous losses inflicted and 
the continued increase in the size of the infested area com- 
pelled the resumption of repressive work. In spite of the 
expenditure of immense sums of money by both the state 




Fig. 141. — Gipsy moth egg-masses in a cavity in 

tree trunk. 



130 



FRUIT INSECTS 



and federal governments, the gipsy moth has gradually ex- 
tended its range over eastern Massachusetts, Rhode Island, 
the southeastern part of New Hampshire and has invaded 
southern Maine. Isolated colonies have also been found in 
Connecticut, western Massachusetts and New York. It has a 
wide range of food-plants, including most forest and fruit trees, 

with the exception 
of ash, juniper and 
red cedar, and the 
maples are rarely 
attacked when other 
food is available. 
The caterpillars 
seem to prefer oak, 
willow and apple, 
but will eat almost 
any kind of foliage 
when driven to it. 

The winter is 
spent in the egg 
state. The egg- 
masses are roughly 
oval in outline, 
about an inch in 
length, light brown 
in color and covered 
with hairs from the moth's body. They are attached to 
the trunk or branches of trees, or are placed in cavities in 
the tree (Fig. 141), in piles of cord wood, lumber piles, 
stone walls and stone piles, or in any conveniently sheltered 
place. Each mass contains normally 400 to 500 eggs, but in 
cases where the larvae have been starved they are small and 
sometimes contain only 50 to 75 eggs. The eggs hatch in the 
spring just as the buds are bursting and the young, reddish- 




FlG. 



142. — Full and partly grown gipsy moth 
caterpillars. 



APPLE INSECTS — BUBS ANB FOLIAGE 



131 



brown caterpillars feed on the tender leaves, which they riddle 
with small holes. As they grow larger they devour the whole 
leaf with the exception of the larger veins. Until about half 
grown they are able to suspend themselves by a thread of silk 
and are thus likely to fall on passing vehicles and be transported 
considerable distances. The larger caterpillars avoid the sun 




Fig. 143. — Gipsy moth depositing egg-mass, and pupae in their cocoons. 

as much as possible, feeding at night or in cloudy weather. 
They become full-grown in about seven weeks or about the 
first week in July. The full-grown caterpillar (Fig. 142) 
averages about two inches in length ; the ground color is dark 
gray and there are eleven pairs of, prominent tubercles on the 
back, the first five pairs are blue, the last six dark red. When 
full-grown or sooner, if the food supply gives out, the cater- 
pillars crawl to some sheltered spot, where they spin a frail 



132 



FRUIT INSECTS 




cocoon consisting of 
a few threads of 
silk, and there 
transform to dark 
reddish-brown 
pupae (Fig. 143), 
bearing groups of 
yellowish hairs. 
The pupal stage 
lasts from a week 
to 17 days. 

As a rule, the 
male moths emerge 

Fig. 144. - Male and female gipsy moths. & nttle earUer than 

the females. The male has a light brown body and the wings 
are yellowish-brown ; the 
front wing is traversed 
by four wavy dark brown 
lines. In the female the 
body is light buff and the 
wings are grayish white; 
the dark brown markings 
on the front wings are 
similar to those of the 
male (Fig. 144). The 
male moth has an expanse 
of one and a half to two 
inches, and the females 
average somewhat larger. 
The male flies with a 
characteristic zigzag mo- 
tion but the female is un- 
able to USe her wingS and FlG - 145, — Calosoma sycophanta, aEuro- 
nc . 10 n„ j„,^ •.*. u Pean ground-beetle introduced into New Eng- 
USUally deposits her eggs land to control the gipsy moth. Enlarged. 



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APPLE INSECTS — BUDS AND FOLIAGE 



133 



within a few inches of the pupal case from which she emerged 
(Fig. 143). 

In its native home the gipsy moth is held in check by its 
natural insect enemies, both parasitic and predaceous. For 
several years now the United States Bureau of Entomology 
has been importing and liberating thousands of these beneficial 
forms with the hope that ultimately they may be able to hold 




Fig. 146. — Combing sticky bands and brushing down caterpillars of the gipsy 

and brown-tail moths. 

the species in check. Some of these introduced insects have 
already become established in the infested territory and are 
multiplying rapidly. One of the most promising of these is 
a large green ground beetle (Calosoma sycophanta L.) shown 
in Figure 145. In both the adult and larval state it preys on 
the larvae and pupae of the gipsy moth. 

Means of control. 

The control of the gipsy moth in orchards is not a difficult 
matter. During the winter the trees should be carefully 



134 FRUIT INSECTS 

examined for egg-masses and the eggs killed by saturating 
them with crude coal-tar creosote to which a little lampblack 
has been added as a marker. The work of destroying the eggs 
can be greatly facilitated by having the trees properly pruned, 
by removing all flakes of rough bark and by filling all cavities 
with cement or covering them with tin. The trees should be 
sprayed, soon after the eggs have hatched, with arsenate of lead, 
10 pounds in 100 gallons of water. If the caterpillars are half- 



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Fig. 147. — Orchard defoliated by gipsy moth caterpillars, in July. 

grown, it is advisable to use 13 or 15 pounds. It is very 
difficult to poison nearly full-grown caterpillars, and for the 
best results the spraying should be done while the caterpillars 
are small. If the orchard is located near untreated woods or 
other orchards the trees should be banded with tanglefoot to 
prevent the ascent of caterpillars migrating from the untreated 
area when the food supply runs short (Fig. 146). 

References 

Forbush and Fernald, The Gipsy Moth, Boston, 1896. 
U. S. Dept. Agr. Farmers' Bull. 275. 1907. 



APPLE INSECTS — BUDS AND FOLIAGE 



135 



U. S. Bur. Ent. Bull. 87. 1910. (Contains references to the important 
reports on the gipsy and brown-tail moths published by the various 
New England States.) 

U. S. Farmers' Bull. 564. 1914. 



The Brown-tail Moth 

Euproctis chrysorrhoea Linnaeus 

This well-known and destructive European caterpillar was 
accidentally introduced into Massachusetts in the vicinity of 
Boston probably in the early 
nineties, but did not attract 
attention by its ravages till 
1897. Since that time it has 
gradually extended its rav- 
ages so that now the infested 
area includes part of Rhode 
Island, the greater part of 
Massachusetts, southern 
New Hampshire, southern 
Maine and extends into New 
Brunswick and Nova Scotia. 
The brown-tail moth has 
been able to spread more 
rapidly than the gipsy moth, 
owing to the fact that the 
females are good fliers, and when aided by favorable winds 
may be transported to a considerable distance. Unlike the 
gipsy moth, the brown-tail caterpillars do not feed on 
coniferous trees, their favorite food-plants being apple, pear 
and oak. The caterpillars, and to a less extent the moths, 
are provided with minute barbed hairs, which are poisonous 
to the human skin, causing an annoying and sometimes serious 
irritation known as the brown-tail rash. 




Fig. 



148. — Brown-tail moth depositing 
egg-mass on a leaf. 



136 FRUIT INSECTS 

The brown-tail moth has an expanse of about one and one 
half inches ; the wings are white and the tip of the abdomen 
bears a tuft of yellowish-brown hairs, hence the name of the 
insect. The males are a little smaller than the females, and 
the brownish tuft is not so conspicuous. The moths appear 
the first week in July, and in badly infested areas are often 
attracted to electric lights in countless numbers. After mating 
the female moth deposits from 200 to 300 globular yellowish 



«;§iiifi*; 




Fig. 149. — Brown-tail moth caterpillars, one in process of molting. 

eggs in an elongate mass on the underside of a leaf (Fig. 148). 
This egg-mass is about f of an inch in length and is thickly 
covered with brownish hairs from the abdomen of the female. 
The eggs are deposited during the first three weeks in July and 
hatch in 15 to 20 days. The young caterpillars feed in colonies 
on the tender, terminal leaves, webbing them together with 
silk to form a snug nest (Fig. 150) two or three inches in length 
within which they pass the winter in a partially grown condi- 
tion, having molted two or three times before going into hiberna- 
tion. These winter nests, usually situated at the tips of the 
branches, are conspicuous objects while the trees are bare of 




APPLE INSECTS — BUDS AND FOLIAGE 137 

foliage. In early spring, just as the buds are bursting, the 
caterpillars leave their winter quarters and resume feeding 
on the unfolding leaves, and if abundant may keep the trees 
stripped of foliage. They molt four or five times in the spring 
and become mature toward the last of June. The full-grown 
caterpillar (Fig. 149) is about 1J inches in length, nearly black 
in ground color, 
clothed with tufts 
of brownish 
barbed hairs and 
has a row of nearly 
white tufts on 
each side of the 
body; there is a 
coral-red tubercle 
on the dorsum of 
the 11th and 12th 
segments. When 
mature the cater- 
pillars spin loosely 
woven cocoons in 

t 1 i Fig. 150. — Winter nest of the brown-tail moth. 

curled leaves, 

crevices in bark of trees, or under any convenient shelter ; they 
are usually found in masses. The pupae are about f inch 
in length and dark brown in color. The pupal period averages 
about 20 days. 

Control. 

As an orchard pest, the brown-tail moth can be most readily 
controlled by collecting and burning the conspicuous hibernating 
nests during the winter months. The newly-hatched caterpillars 
can be killed the first or second week in August by a thorough 
application of arsenate of lead, 8 pounds in 100 gallons of 
water. Attempts to poison the over-wintering caterpillars, 
when they appear on the buds in the spring, are not so success- 




138 FRUIT INSECTS 

fill. The caterpillars often devour the leaves as fast as they 
appear and it is difficult to keep the surface of the rapidly ex- 
panding leaves covered with the poison; furthermore, the 
caterpillars are larger then and consequently harder to kill. 
If for any reason the destruction of the winter nests has been 
neglected, and spring spraying must be employed, some good 
can be accomplished by using arsenate of lead, 10 to 14 pounds 
in 100 gallons of water. 

References 

Fernald & Kirkland, The Brown-tail Moth. 1903. 
U. S. Farmers' Bull. 264. 1906. 
U. S. Bur. Ent. Bull. 87. 1910. 
U. S Farmers' Bull. 564. 1914. 

Climbing Cutworms 

The sleek, plump, dull-colored, obscurely marked caterpillars 
(Fig. 151), ranging from one to nearly two inches in length 

and commonly known 
as cutworms, attack 
nearly all kinds of 
field and garden crops, 
and some of them 
often climb fruit trees, 
bushes and grapevines 
at night to eat the 
opening buds. More 
than a dozen different 
kinds of these climb- 

Fig. 151. - One of the climbing cutworms, Poro- • cu twormS have 

sagrotis vetusta (X It). ° 

been caught at their 
destructive work and identified as follows : 

The yellow-headed cutworm (Hadena arctica Boisduval). 
The white-spotted cutworm (Homohadena badistriga Grote). 




APPLE INSECTS — BUDS AND FOLIAGE 139 

The variegated cutworm (Peridroma margaritosa saucia Hiibner). 

The dark-sided cutworm (Paragrotis messoria Harris). 

The white cutworm (Paragrotis scandens Riley). 

The well-marked cutworm (Noctua clandestina Harris). 

The black-lined cutworm (Noctua fennica Tauscher). 

The mottled-gray cutworm (Rhynchagrotis alternata Grote). 

The red cutworm (Rhynchagrotis placida Grote). 

The speckled cutworm (Mamestra subjuncta Grote and Robinson). 

The dingy cutworm (Schizura ipomcea} Doubleday). 

The spotted-legged cutworm (Porosagrotis vetusta Walker). 

A species of Prodenia and Noctua baja Fabricius. 

Cutworms develop from eggs laid by night-flying Noctuid 
moths that are frequently attracted to lights in large numbers. 
Light, loose soils are most often infested by these caterpillars, 
and where there is a scarcity of low-growing vegetation they 
will climb almost any plant, even to the tops of high trees. 
As peaches are often grown in such light, sandy soils, both 
young and old trees have suffered severely from cutworms in 
various parts of the United States. The buds and leaves 
of grapevines are also favorite delicacies for them. Young 
apple, pear and cherry trees, or blackberry, raspberry and 
currant bushes, or young shade trees and shrubs grown in such 
soils are also often attacked. The half or two-thirds grown 
cutworms, hungry after a long winter's fast in the ground, 
emerge early in the spring as soon as the buds begin to open. 
Like thieves in the night, they crawl up the trees, vines or bushes 
and from about 8 p.m. until nearly morning continue their 
destructive work of eating the buds. In some instances the 
culprits have been first discovered on still nights by hearing 
the noise made by the clicking of the hundreds of tiny, hungry 
jaws as they devoured the buds. Fifty cutworms have been 
found at one time on a tree set the previous year ; from 500 to 
800 have been counted going up the trunk of a 12-year old 
apple tree in a single night; and 1500 have been taken from 
such trees during the 2 or 3 weeks they work in spring. Young 





140 FRUIT INSECTS 

trees and grapevines are often stripped of buds and killed in a 
single night, and the cutworms sometimes gnaw off the tender 

bark of the twigs, 
or may even girdle 
the trunk if pre- 
vented from ascend- 
ing by some barrier. 
Towards morning 
they drop to the 
ground, burrow in 
an inch or more, and 
remain during the 

Fig. 152. — Moth of Porosagrotis vetusta (x If). , TT „ . ~ 

day. usually m 2 
or 3 weeks, or by the time the trees are in leaf and blossom, 
the cutworms become full-grown, cease feeding and soon trans- 
form to the parent moths (Fig. 152). 

Remedial measures. 

Orchards or vineyards on the heavier soils are rarely troubled 
by climbing cutworms. On the light, sandy soils usually pre- 
ferred by these pests, keep the ground entirely free from all 
grass and weeds for 2 or 3 months after July 15, so as to starve 
out the recently hatched caterpillars. If some cover crop, 
like rye, oats, clover, rape or cow-peas, could be sown late in 
fall between the rows of trees, vines or bushes, and plowed under 
after these fruits were in leaf, it would furnish the cutworms 
something besides fruit-buds to eat and thus prevent much of 
their destructive work. 

A collar of cotton batting or wool properly put on the trunks 
of trees or grapevines makes almost a perfect and a very cheap 
barrier to the ascent of the cutworms. Unroll the batting into 
thin sheets and cut into strips 4 or 5 inches wide. . Wrap these 
around the trunks, letting the ends overlap an inch or more, 
then tie with common white twine at the bottom and carefully 
roll the top of the band down over the bottom edge, thus form- 



APPLE INSECTS — BUDS AND FOLIAGE 141 

ing an inverted cotton batting funnel around the trunk. These 
barriers are not easily matted down by rains and a few hours 
of sunshine makes them as fluffy and effective as ever. In 
very rainy seasons use wool, which can be put away and used 
for several seasons. 

Entice them away or prevent their getting to the buds by the 
above methods, then proceed to kill the culprits. Go out with a 
lantern at night, pick off the few that are able to reach the buds 
and collect or crush those trying to get up the trunks. As most 
of them can be found during the day just beneath the surface 
of the soil within a radius of a foot or two around the base of 
the trees or vines, it is an easy matter to dig them out. The fat, 
sleek caterpillars will make dainty morsels for a flock of chickens 
or other fowls. Many of these climbing cutworms can also be 
poisoned with a mixture of bran (25 pounds) and Paris green or 
white arsenic (2 pounds) and water enough to make a soft mash. 
Cheap sugar or molasses may be added to prevent it drying out 
so quickly, but apparently does not add to its attractiveness. 
First put on the cotton batting barriers, then drop a few large 
spoonfuls of this poisoned mash around the base of the trees 
or vines at nightfall. Many of the hungry cutworms will eat 
this deadly mash, either before they try to go up the trees or 
vines, or discouraged by the barrier, return and feast on it. 
Sometimes 90 per cent of them can be poisoned in this way. 
Of course, all poultry and other domestic animals must be kept 
away from the places where this poison bait is being used. 

Reference 
Cornell Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 104. 1895. 



CHAPTER IV 



APPLE INSECTS — APHIS, SCALES, AND OTHERS 

Plant-lice or Aphids 

Three different kinds of these small, soft-bodied sucking 
insects may attack the opening buds, the foliage and sometimes 
the young fruits on apple trees 
(Fig. 153). Often two species 
of these aphids work on the 
same tree in the spring. Nurs- 
ery stock is frequently seri- 




Fig. 153. —Aphid eggs on apple twig. Fig. 154. —Apple leaf aphis on quince. 

142 



APPLE INSECTS 



143 




ously inj ared, the leaves being badly curled and the growth of 
the tree checked. The aphids secrete a sweet liquid known as 
honey-dew in which a black fungus de- 
velops and gives the infested foliage and 
twigs a sooty appearance. In large, bear- 
ing apple orchards, these plant-lice some- 
times appear in incredible numbers and 
not only curl and kill some of the ter- 
minal leaves but attack the young fruits, 
preventing their full development and 
giving them a knotty, stunted appear- 
ance (Figs. 157, 158 and 159). The three 
species of these aphids now common on 
apple trees throughout the United States 
are Aphis pomi, Aphis sorbi and Sipho- 
coryne avence. 

The interesting and somewhat compli- 
cated life histories of these plant-lice have 
not been fully worked out. The last two 
species breed on the apple trees for only a few generations in 
the spring and early summer, then migrate to other food-plants, 
but return to the trees in the fall, where the hibernating eggs 
are laid. The first species remains on the trees throughout 
the year. The wonderful rapidity with which these aphids 
multiply parthenogenetically enables even those that work on 
the trees only a part of the season to develop in sufficient num- 
bers to do serious injury to the foliage or fruit before they mi- 
grate to their summer food-plants. 

Natural enemies of the apple aphids. 

Cold, heavy rains, both in early spring and late autumn, re- 
move and doubtless kill many of the aphids, thus often prevent- 
ing serious infestation in orchards. Fungous diseases also 
destroy large numbers under favorable weather conditions. 
Several species of ladybird beetles, aphis-lions and maggots of 



Fig. 155. — Newly- 
hatched aphids clustering 
on an opening apple bud. 



144 



FEU IT INSECTS 



Syrphus flies often reap a rich harvest of apple plant-lice. 
These predaceous enemies, aided by several minute parasitic 
flies, are very effective aids in reducing these prolific little pests 
to much less injurious numbers. If it were not for these adverse 
weather conditions, fungous troubles, and insect enemies, apple 




Fig. 156. — Dipping the tips of nursery trees in soap solution for the control of 

plant-lice. 

trees, especially large, bearing trees, would be much more fre- 
quently overrun and severely injured by plant-lice. 

Remedial treatments. 

As all three of these common apple plant-lice pass the winter 
as shiny black eggs, quite readily seen when numerous, and 
laid mostly on the twigs, many of them could be removed by 



APPLE INSECTS 



145 



judicious pruning, especially on young trees. Nursery stock is 
frequently badly infested, and the dormant trees may be heavily 
stocked with the eggs. It is sometimes practicable to crush 
the eggs on a few young trees with the fingers or a thin wooden 
paddle. The eggs are very resistant to the strongest contact 
insecticides, like oils and soaps. Experiments indicate that 
spraying to kill the eggs is of doubtful utility, usually enough 
eggs hatching to 
abundantly stock 
the trees with 
aphids. Thorough | 
fumigation with hy- 
drocyanic acid gas i 
is said to kill many 
of the eggs. 

After the aphids 
hatch in the spring, 
they are readily 
killed when hit with 
" Black Leaf 40" 
tobacco extract, f 
of a pint in 100 gal- 
lons of water, add- 
ing 3 pounds of soap 
to each 100 gallons to make the liquid stick and spread better. 
One thorough application when the aphids are thick on the 
opening buds will usually control the more common apple bud 
aphis, S. avence, which as a rule does not curl the leaves as 
much as the other species. The apple leaf aphis and rosy apple 
aphis, however, breed on the trees longer and often curl the 
leaves, so that it is almost impossible to hit a majority of them 
with the spray. Nurserymen often dip the infested branches 
into the insecticide (Fig. 156), thus doing more effective work 
than can be done with a spray. Several dippings or sprayings 




Fig. 157. — Plant-lice clustering on a young apple. 



146 



FRUIT INSECTS 



are often necessary to thoroughly control these prolific little 
pests. Usually the weather conditions in the spring, aided by 
the insect enemies, prevent serious injury by the aphids on large, 
bearing trees. When they do infest such trees in destructive 
numbers and swarm on to the young fruits, the tree should be 




Fig. 158. — Plant-lice clustering on young fruit. 



promptly and most thoroughly sprayed with one of the insecti- 
cides mentioned above. Such sprays applied in October would 
kill many of the sexual forms before the eggs are laid. Nursery- 
men especially could thus strike a very effective blow at these 
plant-lice and often prevent much of their destructive work 
the next season. 



APPLE INSECTS 



147 



The Apple Leaf-aphis 

Aphis pomi De Geer (Aphis mali Fabricius) 

This old and common European species was not definitely 
recognized in America until 1897, but it is now widely dis- 
tributed throughout the United States. It infests the apple, 
pear, quince, and hawthorn. From the small, shiny black 
oval eggs (Fig. 154) laid mostly on the bark around the buds 
in the fall by the 
wingless female 
aphids, there hatches 
in the spring, about 
the time the buds 
begin to open, the so- 
called stem-mothers. 
These are wingless, 
somewhat pear- 
shaped, bright green 
in color, and give 
birth to a generation 
of green viviparous 
aphids, about three 
fourths of which de- 
velop into winged fe- 
males, the remainder being wingless with long, black cornicles. 
The winged forms (Fig. 161) spread the species to other parts 
of the same tree or to other apple trees. About half of the next 
generation, and some of the later generations, may develop wings 
and migrate, but the winged forms give birth to wingless vivipa- 
rous females only (Fig. 160). This species lives on the apple tree 
all the year, breeding continuously during the summer. Most of 
these wingless, viviparous females are light green in color, but in 
the spring some may have bright yellow bodies. In October a 




Fig. 159. — Mature apples, dwarfed and mis- 
shapen, as a result of aphis injury when small. 



148 



FRUIT INSECTS 



generation of true males and females, which are wingless, appear, 
mate and continue to lay their shiny black eggs on the bark for a 

month or more. The light green, 
oviparous females have peculiar sen- 
sory pits on their hind tibiae and are 
about two thirds as large as the par- 
thenogenetic wingless summer forms. 
The yellowish-brown males, with 
blackish antennae longer than the 
body, are one third smaller and much 
less numerous than the females. 

This species usually appears some- 
what later in the spring than the 
more common apple bud aphis, and 
it is thus not so numerous on the 
buds, waiting until the leaves are unfolded. As it breeds 
on the trees during the whole season it may be more injuri- 
ous -than the other two species. Its work resembles that of 




Fig. 160. — Apple leaf-aphis, 
apterous viviparous female. 




Fig. 161. — Apple leaf-aphis, winged viviparous female, third generation. 



the rosy apple aphis, the leaves often being curled very badly. 
In 1907 it was so numerous in many large, bearing orchards in 
New York that it swarmed on to the young fruits in June, 
checked their growth, prevented the normal June drop, and gave 



APPLE INSECTS 149 

them a knotty appearance, thus ruining them for market. 
Apples dwarfed by aphis injury usually present a characteristic 
puckered condition at the blossom end (Fig. 159). The rosy 
apple aphis also helped in this destructive and unusual outbreak. 

References 

N. J. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 143. 1900. 

Del. Agr. Exp. Sta. 13th Rept., pp. 130-136. 1902. 

U. S. Bur. Ent. Circ. 81. 1907. 

Col. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 133, pp. 23-28. 1908. 

The Rosy Apple Aphis 

Aphis sorbi Kaltenbach (Aphis malifolice Fitch) 

This species is now widespread and common throughout 
the United States and Canada. It is probably an old European 
species which was introduced into America more than half a 
century ago. Apple is its favorite food-plant, but pear, white 
thorn and three species of Sorbus are sometimes infested. 

This rosy aphis often occurs on the same trees and in the 
midst of colonies of the next species, S. avena, but it is not so 
restless and active. The stem -mothers hatched from the hi- 
bernated shiny, black, oval eggs in early spring, are globose 
in shape and of a dark purplish-brown color mottled with black. 
They are thinly covered with a whitish pulverulence and have 
blackish antennae, cornicles and legs. The progeny of these 
stem-mothers are wingless parthenogenetic females, usually of a 
pinkish color, but sometimes varying to a light brown, slaty 
gray or greenish black with the body covered with a whitish 
coating. This mealy appearance and its pinkish color will 
usually readily distinguish the wingless forms of this rosy 
aphis from those of the other two species. The tips of the 
antennse and cornicles are black. Another brood of these wing- 
less viviparous females is developed on the leaves in early 
June, but the progeny of these, or the third generation from the 



150 



FRUIT INSECTS 



stem-mothers, develop into parthenogenetic winged forms (Fig. 
162) that migrate from the apple trees to some unknown food- 
plant during the latter part of June in New York. In 1893 we 
tried to colonize these spring migrants on various grasses, but 

failed, and did not see the species 
again until September, when shiny 
black winged viviparous females 
or migrants appeared on the apple 
leaves. These were darker than 
the migrants which left the trees 
in the spring and differed slightly 
in other details. Early in October 
a progeny of globose, light yellow 
or brownish colored wingless ovip- 
arous females, with many sensory 
pits on the hind tibiae, began to 
be born from the winged return mi- 
grants. Soon winged males, which 
resembled the somewhat larger re- 
turn migrants, came from unknown 
sources and mated with the wingless females, which began laying 
their shiny black eggs on the twigs, and often on the trunk also. 
Although working on the apple tree only about two months in 
the spring, this rosy apple aphis is capable of doing much injury. 
It often curls the leaves as badly as the preceding species, A. 
pomi, and in 1903 it helped this species in its very destructive 
work on the young fruits. In 1907 another of these unusual 
devastations on the fruit by plant-lice occurred in June in New 
York apple orchards, and this time the principal depredator 
was this rosy apple aphis. 




Fig. 162. — The rosy apple 
aphis, a parthenogenetic female 
of the third generation, with 
wing pads. 



References 

Del. Agr. Exp. Sta. 13th Rept., pp. 149-156. 
U. S. Bur. Ent. Circ. 81. 1907. 



1902. 



APPLE INSECTS 



151 



The Apple Bud-aphis 



Siphocoryne avenoe Fabricius 

This green aphis is the one which most commonly infests the 
opening apple buds in the United States and Canada. It is 
an old European species, which has a very wide range of food- 
plants, including apple, pear, hawthorn, quince, plum, at least 
seven other trees, five weeds or herbs, 
wheat, rye, oats and nine different 
grasses. It is most injurious to the 
apple, often nearly covering the open- 
ing leaf-buds and blossoms, and it 
sometimes injures young wheat in 
the fall. 

The yellowish-green, wingless, vi- 
viparous stem-mothers hatch from the 
shiny, black, oval winter eggs as soon as 
the apple buds begin to open, and most 
of their progeny develop into winged 
parthenogenetic, blackish females (Fig. 
163) which leave the apple in May. A 
few may remain on the trees through 
two or three more generations, or 
until July. In 1893 we found that 
these spring migrants could be readily colonized on June and 
meadow grasses (species of Pod), and we succeeded in following 
the insect through thirteen parthenogenetic generations on these 
grasses from late in May until November. Then some developed 
into the winged return migrants, but others continued to breed 
and finally lived through the winter on these grasses and on 
wheat kept under outdoor conditions. Curiously enough, all the 
generations grown on the grasses were alternately wingless and 
winged viviparous females. They were much smaller and 




Fig. 163. — The apple bud- 
aphis, a parthenogenetic fe- 
male with wing pads. 



152 FRUIT INSECTS 

darker colored than those on the apple, and have been described 
as a different species, Aphis annuce Oestlund. On the grasses 
they lived on the blossom heads, but mostly on the stems, and 
some of them at the base of plants. It has been suggested that 
the species is biennial, the progeny of the spring migrants from 
the apple living on grasses and grains until the autumn of the 
second year before going back to the apple. 

Late in September we found many winged viviparous females 
returning to the apple trees. These return migrants were very 
similar to the spring migrating form, and soon gave birth to ovip- 
arous females, which were wingless and of a yellowish-green or 
dark green color. About the time these females matured, or three 
or four weeks after the return migrant females came from the 
grasses, there came to the trees the more slender, light greenish- 
brown colored winged males. These males actively seek the wing- 
less females, and we have seen them mate with the females of 
the rosy apple aphis also. Egg-laying began late in October and 
continued until December, the shiny black eggs being deposited 
on the bark all over the tree, but mostly on the twigs near the 
buds. The sexual forms may also appear on the pear, quince, 
hawthorn or plum trees in autumn, and eggs be deposited thereon. 

All of the winged forms of this apple bud aphis, including the 
summer broods on grasses, can be distinguished from those of 
the other two species by the fact that the terminal fork of the 
second vein behind the stigma is shorter and nearer the margin 
of the wing. Usually the brownish coalescing spots around 
the clavate cornicles are more distinct on all the forms of this 
species. It leaves the tree for its summer food-plants so soon in 
the spring that it does not curl the leaves as much as the other 
two species. 

References 

Del. Agr. Exp. Sta. 13th Rept., pp. 137-149. 1902. 
U. S. Bur. Ent. Circ. 81. 1907. 



APPLE INSECTS 



153 



The Woolly Aphis of the Apple 

Schizoneura lanigera Hausmann 

Practically wherever the apple is grown in any part of the 
world, there may often be found during the summer on the 
trunk, branches and water-sprouts above ground and on the 
roots also bluish-white, cottony patches (Fig. 164) consisting 




Fig. 164. — The woolly aphis, a cluster of lice on an apple twig showing the 

white woolly covering. 



of many small, reddish-brown plant-lice or aphids scarcely one 
tenth of an inch in length. Above ground the bodies of the 
aphids are nearly covered by a woolly mass of long, waxy fibers 
that are much shorter on the root-inhabiting aphids, and 
gives them a whitish mealy appearance. Although for many 
years considered as distinct species and now often discussed 
as different forms, the aphids living underground on the roots 
and those on the branches or trunk are absolutely identical 



154 FRUIT INSECTS 

structurally and one can readily colonize the branch-inhabiting 
aphids on the roots and vice versa; furthermore, the aphids 
may often be seen during the growing season wandering from 
roots to branches or going down the trunk on to the roots, and in 
either case soon establishing themselves in their new location. 
This woolly aphis has ranked as a serious apple pest for more 
than a hundred years both in Europe and America. In spite 
of much discussion and controversy, it is not definitely known 
which of these countries is its native home; it is found upon 
native apple and thorn trees in both countries. In America 
the insect is commonly known as the woolly aphis, but in 




Fig. 165. — The woolly aphis, a cluster of lice with the woolly covering removed. 

England it is the " American blight" and in Germany it is 
called the " blood-louse " from the red color of the crushed 
bodies of the aphids. 

The woolly aphis sucks its food from the tissues of the bark 
and often causes an abnormal growth or swelling where it works. 
Above ground colonies of the aphids often develop about the 
leaf axils on sprouts or new growths and particularly at abra- 
sions (Fig. 165) on the bark or where a branch has been cut off. 
The aphids often prevent the injured bark from healing nor- 
mally, and as considerable enlargements of the surrounding tis- 
sues result, infested branches often present a swollen and scarred 
appearance. A favorite location for their work is on the crown 
of the tree just above the roots. Underground the aphids 
cause conspicuous, rounded, nodular swellings or galls to de- 



APPLE INSECTS 155 

velop on the roots, finally resulting in their decay. Usually 
most of the injury resulting from the work of this pest is due 
to the greater numbers of the aphids infesting the roots, the 
more conspicuous but less numerous colonies above ground, 
rarely doing much damage, especially on larger trees. In some 
regions, and especially in Europe, the trees are often seriously 
injured by a majority of the aphids working above ground. In 
cases of severe infestation the woolly aphids swarm over the 
whole tree above and below ground, even attacking the foliage 
and fruit. The foliage on badly infested trees often presents 
a yellowish, sickly appearance, and the trees are easily uprooted, 
as many of the roots have decayed from the work of the pest. 
Apple trees of all ages and varieties are liable to attack, but 
usually young trees, especially nursery stock, surfer most. 
Some varieties, like the Northern Spy, are often more or less 
exempt from attack. Pear, quince and the mountain ash 
are also recorded as host-plants ; it also passes a part of its life 
history on the elm, causing a characteristic curling of the 
leaves (Fig. 166). The insect may injuriously infest the roots 
of trees growing in various kinds of soils, and it works destruc- 
tively over a wide range of latitude. Many thousands of 
nursery trees are annually either killed by the insect or ren- 
dered unsalable and destroyed in America. Infested nursery 
stock is largely responsible for its wide distribution. In most 
localities large, thrifty orchard trees are not seriously injured 
by this aphis, but sometimes under favorable conditions it 
breeds so rapidly that it ranks among the most destructive of 
the insect enemies of the apple. 

The interesting and rather complicated life history of this 
woolly aphis is little understood by orchardists, and a few details 
are still 1-acking to make it complete. During the summer only 
the little wingless, agamic female aphids occur on the apple 
trees. A dozen generations of these may be developed during 
the summer, each mother aphid bringing forth living young, 



156 FRUIT INSECTS 

sometimes at the rate of two to twenty a day for two or more 
weeks. The baby aphids or nymphs are usually born enwrapped 
in a thin pellicle, which is soon cast off. The little creature 
begins to suck its food through a beak longer than its body, 
and its waxy coating is secreted in a few hours. As these little 
nymphs feed and grow their skin is shed four times, a new waxy 
coating being secreted each time, and they may become full- 
grown in from eight to twenty days. Many of these wingless, 
agamic nymphs persist on the roots, and some of them even on 
the tree above ground, all the year through even in New York 
state and other cold northern latitudes. These aphids mostly, 
if not wholly, cease breeding, however, even in southern localities 
during the winter months. During the autumn months, some- 
times beginning in August, there is developed both above and 
below ground many minute, winged, greenish-brown-bodied, 
agamic female aphids with the body more or less covered with 
the woolly secretion. These winged forms may fly or be blown 
to near-by elm trees. They are destined to play an interesting 
and important role in the perpetuation of their kind. In a few 
days these winged, agamic migrating forms give birth to from 
six to twelve young, about half males and half females. Both 
sexes are wingless and do not grow after being born, having no 
mouth parts with which to take food. The reddish-yellow 
females are about one-twentieth of an inch in length and twice 
as large as the slenderer, olive-yellow males. A few days after 
mating the female lays a single long, dark, cinnamon-colored 
oval egg nearly as large as her body in a crevice of the elm bark. 
Some of these eggs have been found in crevices of the apple 
bark where there had been colonies of the lice during the sum- 
mer ; others record them as laid on the bark on the crown of 
the tree near the roots, but as a rule they are laid on the elm. 
These winter eggs hatch in early spring and the stem-mothers, 
as the first brood of lice are called, are found on the opening 
elm leaf buds. They are wingless, and feed on the under surface 



APPLE INSECTS 



157 



of the leaves and are soon surrounded by a numerous family 
of young aphids. The presence of the lice cause the elm leaves 
to swell and curl, as shown in Figure 166. The next generation 
is also wingless, but with the third brood winged forms appear 
and continue abundant throughout the summer. Some of these 
fly back to the apple and there establish colonies on the branches, 

others probably *mmm^^^L 

found colonies on the 
tender elm branches, 
and some of those ap- 
pearing early in the 
season may migrate 
to other elm leaves. 
When living on the 
elm the woolly aphis 
has been known as 
the woolly elm leaf 
aphid (Schizoneura 
americana Riley) . 

Enemies. 

The woolly aphis 
has its natural ene- 
mies, which help to 
keep it in check. 
Spiders often spin their webs over a colony of the aphids 
and then live at their ease. Many of the aphids are para- 
sitized by the minute chalcis fly, Aphelinus mali, and the 
larvae of lace-wing flies and a syrphus fly, Pipiza radicum, often 
work destruction in the woolly clusters. The larvae and adults 
of several ladybird beetles, particularly the small, brown Scym- 
nus ceryicaulis, and the nine-spotted Coccinella 9-notata, are also 
active enemies of the woolly aphis, but the combined efforts of 
all these foes do not often sufficiently control it, so as to make 
remedial treatments unnecessary, especially on young trees. 




%-"' 

'-&> 



Fig. 166. — Elm leaves curled by the woolly aphis. 



158 FRUIT INSECTS 

Remedial measures. 

Above ground the woolly aphis can be readily controlled by 
thoroughly drenching the bark, and particularly the woolly 
colonies of aphids in summer, with a forceful spray of 15 per cent 
kerosene emulsion. Two applications may be necessary in ex- 
treme cases. Soap solutions and tobacco decoctions are not so 
effective as the emulsion. Drench the lower portion of the trunk 
and let the spray run down on to the crown and roots. It is 
often practicable to destroy most of the aphids above ground 
by simply painting the woolly patches with the emulsion or 
pure kerosene, crude oil, or a miscible oil (1 to 10 parts water). 

It is much more difficult to reach and kill the aphids working 
underground on the roots. Nurserymen should destroy all 
badly infested stock where the roots show many of the char- 
acteristic galls. Orchardists should never accept and plant such 
trees. Where infestation by this pest is suspected, all stock 
should be properly fumigated with hydrocyanic-acid-gas, or 
the whole trees or the roots only may be dipped in the 15 per 
cent kerosene emulsion mentioned above, or in a nicotine solu- 
tion. For dipping, the roots should be freed from lumps of dirt, 
then held in the liquid a minute or two and spread out to dry 
before being piled in heaps. Hot water (130° to 150° F.) is 
said to be an effective dip also, but do not use the lime-sulfur 
wash, as it often injures or kills the trees. If the emulsion is 
used, it must be thoroughly emulsified, as any free oil might 
seriously injure the roots. Plant the trees free from the pest, 
keep them growing thriftily for a few years, and the woolly aphis 
will be much less liable to seriously infest the orchard. 

A narrow band of some sticky material around the trunks of 
infested trees will capture many of the aphids often seen wander- 
ing up and down the trunks, and thus aid materially in prevent- 
ing the infestation of the roots by those working above ground. 

Experiments in Missouri in 1896 seemed to show that the 
aphids could be killed and their ravages largely prevented by 



APPLE INSECTS 159 

a liberal use of tobacco dust. It was applied on a 10-year-old 
orchard by removing the earth to a depth of 4 inches and for a 
distance of 2 feet around the trunk. Five or six pounds of the 
dust were evenly scattered over this area and the dirt replaced. 
Nursery trees were treated by putting the dust in trenches along- 
side the rows. Further detailed experiments in Georgia ten 
years later, however, gave very unsatisfactory results in or- 
chards and nurseries with tobacco used in various forms in the 
excavated areas or trenches. Some trees received over 12 
pounds of the dust in four months, two applications being made. 
Whale-oil soap was also used in these experiments even at the 
rate of 2 pounds to a gallon without success ; and it was found 
that carbon bisulphide injected into the ground would kill the 
aphids only over a limited area near the application hole, and it 
could not be used in sufficient quantities to kill all the aphids 
without killing or injuring the trees. These Georgia experi- 
ments demonstrated the value of an application of 15 per cent 
kerosene emulsion (the stock emulsion formula diluted with 
about 10 gallons of water). The soil was removed to a depth of 
about 3 inches over an area from 1§ to 4 feet around the trees, 
depending on the size of the trees, and after the application the 
soil was replaced. Three gallons of the 15 per cent emulsion 
on the smaller area and 6 gallons over the larger circles served 
to saturate the soil for 2 to 4 inches, and it gradually permeated 
the soil a foot or more, where a perceptible odor remained for 
many weeks. All the aphids the emulsion reached were killed 
and the kerosene odor acted as a repellent for a long time. The 
cost per tree varied from 4 to 8 cents. A 10 per cent emulsion 
(stock formula diluted with 17 gallons of water) was' very 
effective on nursery trees when poured in shallow trenches made 
close to the trees along each side of the rows. This kerosene 
emulsion treatment should be made during early summer and 
not later than the last of July, as it may injure dormant trees 
or those that have made most of their growth for the season. 



160 FRUIT INSECTS 

As there is danger that nursery trees may become infested by 
migrants from elm, it is not advisable to allow these trees to 
grow in the vicinity of the nursery or to grow elm stock with 
apple stock in the same nursery. 

References 

Mo. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 35. 1896. 

U. S. Bur. Ent. Circular 20. 1897. 

U. S. Bur. Ent, Bull. 18, pp. 78-81. 1898. 

Ga. State Bd. Ent. Bull. 23. 1907. 

Col. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 133, pp. 5-23. 1908. 

Me. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 203. 1912. 

U. S. Bur. Ent. Circular 158. 1912. 

Me. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 217. 1913. 

Me. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 220. 1913. 

The Buffalo Tree-hopper 

Ceresa bubalus Fabricius 

Young fruit trees in the upper Mississippi Valley and east- 
ward through the United States and Canada to Nova Scotia 
are often seriously injured by this curious little grass-green, 
triangular-shaped, active bug, about f of an inch long, with 
large, horn-like projections of the anterior angles of the thorax 
which give it a fancied resemblance to a male buffalo, hence 
its common name (Fig. 167). The injury is all done by the fe- 
male bugs in laying their eggs from July till October in the bark 
on the upper sides of the smaller branches. Two slightly curved 
slits about ■£$ of an inch long are made near together in such 
a way that the bark between the incisions is cut loose. From 
6 to 12 long, cylindrical, whitish eggs are stuck into each slit 
and do not hatch until the following May or June. These 
peculiar egg-scars rarely heal and gradually enlarge, giving the 
branches a very rough and scabby appearance (Fig. 167 a) . Two- 
or three-year-old apple and pear trees usually suffer most, but 



APPLE INSECTS 



161 



cherry, prune and quince trees and various forest trees often 
show many of the egg-scars. Hundreds of the incisions are 
often made in a square inch or two of the bark, growth is checked 
and such extensive scarification often ruins the trees. In some 
localities the insect 



is considered the 
most destructive 
insect enemy of 
young fruit trees. 

The strongly 
spined young bugs 
or nymphs which 
hatch from the 
eggs live mostly on 
grasses or weeds 
near the scarred 
trees. Thus only 
uncultivated or- 
chards or those 
bordered by low 
vegetation are seri- 
ously injured by 
this buffalo tree- 
hopper. Two mi- 
nute parasites de- 
stroy many of the 
eggs. 

borders in June will starve out and largely prevent injury from 
this sucking bug. It cannot be reached satisfactorily with any 
spray, but many of the eggs can be destroyed by judicious 
pruning out of the freshly scarred branches in autumn or 
winter. 

Stictocephala inermis Fabricius, a species of tree-hopper 
similar to the last, also scars the branches with its characteristic 




Fig. 167. 



The buffalo tree-hopper ( x 5f ) . 

Thorough cultivation and the burning over of weedy 



162 



FRUIT INSECTS 



egg punctures. It causes little injury, however, because the 
inner bark continues alive and there is no dead area between the 
slits. 

Ceresa taurina Fitch and C. borealis Fairmaire, two forms 
closely related to the buffalo tree-hopper, deposit their eggs in 




Fig. 167 a. — Apple twigs showing egg-scars of the buffalo tree-hopper. 

the buds, within the outer bud-scales. They cause no appre- 
ciable injury. 

Reference 

N. Y. (Geneva) Agr. Exp. Sta. Tech. Bull. 17. 1910. 



The San Jose Scale 

Aspidiotus perniciosus Comstock 

The San Jose scale has attained greater notoriety, has been 
the cause of more legislation, both foreign and interstate, and 
has demonstrated its capabilities of doing more injury to the 
fruit interests of the United States and Canada than any other 
insect. The ease with which it is widely distributed on nursery 
stock, the practical impossibility of exterminating it in a locality, 
its enormous fecundity enabling it to often overspread the bark, 
leaves and fruit of trees in a very few years, and the fact that it 
attacks practically all deciduous fruit and ornamental plants, 



APPLE INSECTS 163 

makes it of the greatest economic importance. No other scale- 
insect has ever equaled it in capacity for injury to plants. 

China is believed to be the native home of this pest, and 
more appropriate common names for it are the Chinese scale, 
or the pernicious scale, from the very pat name given it by 
Professor Comstock when he described it in 1880. It first 
became established in America at San Jose, Cal., about 1870, 
and derived its name therefrom. Previous to its introduction 
into Eastern nurseries in 1886 or 1887, the scale had gradually 
spread over most of the states west of the Rocky Mountains. 
It was not until 1893 that it was discovered in Virginia in the 
East, but it was soon found to have been already widely spread 
from these nurseries through thirteen states from New York to 
Florida. So rapidly has it been spread that important orchard 
sections in nearly every state and territory, and in Canada 
and British Columbia, are infested, and it is only a question of 
time when it will extend over practically all the fruit-growing 
areas of North America within its climatic range. It occurs 
also in Hawaii, Chili, Japan and Australia, but stringent legis- 
lation has thus far prevented its becoming established in Europe. 

The San Jose scale attacks all parts of fruit trees, including 
the trunk, branches, leaves and fruit, and usually causes reddish 
discolorations of the bark or skin of fruit (Fig. 169). Clusters 
of the scales often occur around the stem and blossom end of the 
fruit, rendering it unsalable, and sometimes giving a pitted ap- 
pearance. In bad infestations the scales are crowded together 
and present a grayish, roughened, scurfy deposit on the bark. If 
scraped, a yellowish liquid results from the mashing of the soft 
yellow insects beneath the scales. The fruits commonly infested 
are apple, pear, quince, peach, plum, prune, apricot, nectarine, 
sweet cherry, currant and gooseberry. Lemons and oranges, 
except the trifoliate varieties, many shrubs, forest trees and 
evergreens are practically exempt from attack. 

The fears that shade trees and forests would be ravaged 



164 



FRUIT INSECTS 




Fig. 167 b. — Full-grown female 
San Jose scale (x 10). 



and become permanent breeding grounds have not been realized, 
as the pest confines its depredations mostly to fruit trees and 
ornamental shrubs. 

The scale is a waxy secretion covering the soft, yellow, 

sac-like body of the insect beneath. 
The largest scales cover the full- 
grown females and are nearly circu- 
lar, gray, about the size of the head 
of an ordinary pin ( T V of an inch in 
diameter) with a central dark nipple 
surrounded by a yellowish ring (Fig. 
167 b) . The smaller scales are nearly 
black with a central gray dot sur- 
rounded by a black depressed ring 
bordered by a grayish ring. The 
San Jose scale can often be readily 
distinguished from the closely related species, Putnam's scale, 
European fruit-scale and cherry scale, even with a hand-lens by 
these peculiarities of the young scales. In the other species the 
nipple is usually one side of the center and orange or yellow in 
color, and the scales are not so black or lack the depressed ring 
of the nipple. The elongate-oval 
male San Jose scales, only about 
half as long as the diameter of a 
mature female scale, are dark 
gray with the circular raised ex- 
uvial portion near one end and 
usually darker but sometimes yel- 
lowish (Fig. 168) . The male scales 
are sometimes more numerous than 
the females during the early part of the breeding season. 

In late autumn all stages of the San Jose scale, from those 
just born to the fully developed insects, are to be found on the 
trees, but practically only the small black scales covering the 




Fig. 168. — Two male San Jose 
scales. Enlarged. 



APPLE INSECTS 165 

half-grown insects hibernate, all the other stages being killed 
by winter conditions. In New York the winged males emerge 
in May, and the females mature and begin giving birth to living 
young during the latter part of June. The young develop 
inside the body of the mother in thin membranous, sac-like 
eggs and most of them burst through the sac and are born alive, 
but some of these eggs may be laid before the young hatch, 
so while the insect is usually ovo viviparous it may be partially 
oviparous. A single mother is capable of giving birth over a 
period of six weeks to nearly 600 young but doubtless does not 
average more than 100 to 200 ; many of these are males, and some 
soon die. The tiny yellow, six-legged young crawl from under 
the mother scale and often spend about a day in finding a suit- 
able place to settle down and insert their long, thread-like mouth 
parts with which they suck their food from the interior tissues 
of the plant. In a few hours the body becomes covered with 
a mass of white cottony and waxy fibers which in 2 or 3 days 
mat into a pale grayish scale that gradually becomes larger and 
darker until in about two weeks the first molt of the insect 
occurs. Up to this point the males and females and their scales 
have been indistinguishable, but after this molt they both lose 
their legs and antennae and the females their eyes also. The 
males have large, purple eyes and undergo tw T o more molts, 
gradually developing into delicate, orange-colored, two- 
winged, fly-like insects in from 3 to 4 weeks. The yellow 
female insects, with their thread-like, sucking mouth parts two 
or three times as long as the body, remain circular, flattened 
and sac-like in form, molt a second time in from 3 to 5 weeks, 
and in a few days mate with the males. In molting the old 
skins split around the edge of the body, the upper half adhering 
to the scale beneath the central nipple and the lower half form- 
ing sort of a ventral scale next to the bark; the second and 
third cast skins of the male are pushed out from beneath the 
scale. 



166 FRUIT INSECTS 

At Washington, the females may attain their full growth in 
30 days from birth, but it requires about 50 days in the fall 
in New York. As the females bear living young over so long a 
period, the broods overlap and it is difficult to trace the number 
of generations, but there are apparently three broods annually 
in the latitude of New York and four broods at least south of 
Washington. Breeding begins in the North in June and a 
month or more earlier in the South. The progeny of a single 
San Jose scale giving birth to only 100 female young in the 
spring could, but doubtless never does, amount to the enor- 
mous total of over 100,000,000 females by fall if there were four 
generations annually. At this fearful rate of multiplication, 
unequaled by any other injurious scale-insect, it is no wonder 
that infested plants rapidly succumb to the drain of so many 
thousands of tiny pumps sucking out their life. 

The widespread distribution of the San Jose scale is due 
almost entirely to infested nursery stock. Rigid nursery 
inspection, compulsory fumigation, and interstate quarantine 
legislation doubtless help much, but fail to fully protect the 
fruit-grower, and the pest continues to reach both old and new 
localities on infested nursery stock bearing supposed " bills of 
health " in the form of inspection and fumigation certificates. 
Many have feared that new infestations might be brought about 
through infested fruits, especially apples and pears, which are 
distributed world-wide. Foreign nations enacted strict quar- 
antine regulations against infested American fruit, even though 
it were dried. However, there are no authentic cases of infes- 
tation from scaly fruit, and while there is a bare possibility that 
it might occur, the chances are so small as to be practically 
ignored. The scale may be spread locally from tree to tree 
or to other orchards in several ways. As the newly born lice 
are active and often crawl about for a day before settling down, 
they may be able to crawl on to other trees, especially in nur- 
series where the branches interlace and touch. Strong winds 



APPLE INSECTS 



167 



may blow these crawling young to neighboring trees, and many 
of them are doubtless carried to other trees or orchards by other 
insects and by birds which often go from tree to tree. The 
crawling young have been found on the bodies of black lady- 
bird beetles, black ants, grasshoppers, Chrysopa adults, flies, 
and beetles, these insects thus furnishing ideal steeds or " flying 
machines " on which the scale 
may ride to new pastures. 

While the San Jose scale is one 
of the greatest insect scourges 
that the fruit industry has ever 
encountered, it has taught some 
valuable lessons. Nurserymen 
are growing and shipping cleaner, 
healthier, better stock. Fruit 
growers are selecting their trees 
with greater care, and giving 
each tree individual attention in 
the orchard, an invaluable fea- 
ture in orcharding. Many have 
been forced into spraying, which 
most progressive fruit growers 
find to be one of the best pay- 
ing operations in orchards. The 
scale is so small and so difficult to reach and kill, that the efforts 
to successfully combat it have resulted in better spray mix- 
tures, machinery and methods not only for this scale, but for 
other insect and fungous enemies of orchards. Fruit growers 
in general are spraying more skillfully, more easily and more 
effectively, and many of them are satisfactorily controlling this 
tiny but terrible foe — the San Jose scale. 

While the San Jose scale is beset by many natural enemies, 
its marvelous fecundity usually enables it to develop in in- 
jurious numbers in spite of them. The following nine species 




Fig. 169. 



Pear infested with San 
Jose scale. 



168 FRUIT INSECTS 

of minute Hymenoptera are true parasites of the scale in 
America : Aphelinus fuscipennis and mytilaspidis, Aspidioti- 
phagus citrinus, Anaphes gracilis, Physcus varicornis, Prospal- 
tella aurantii, P. perniciosi, Ablerus clisiocampm and Rhopoidens 
citrinus. Most of these parasites are widely distributed in the 
United States and other countries, and they are all general 
feeders on other species of the armored scales. Sometimes these 
parasites destroy enormous numbers of the scales, and they will 
always be very potent factors in Nature's efforts to help man 
in controlling this pest. 

About a dozen ladybird beetles have been found eating the 
San Jose scale in America. The most important and useful 
of these are the twice-stabbed ladybird, Chilocorus bivulnerus, 
the tiny black Microweisea misella, another tiny, dark, wine-red 
colored species of the same genus, M. suturalis, and a Malachiid 
beetle, Collops quadrimaculatus. The most useful and inter- 
esting of these is the tiny black misella, which is widely dis- 
tributed in the United States. The little beetles stand astride 
the full-grown female scales, push their heads under the margin 
of the scale and devour the soft, yellow insect beneath. The 
grubs of the beetle feed upon the smaller scales. The chief 
natural enemy which kept this scale in check in its native home 
in China was found to be a ladybird beetle, Chilocorus similis, 
which is almost identical in the beetle stage to our native Ameri- 
can twice-stabbed ladybird, but differs in the reddish color of 
the grub and it also breeds much faster. This Asiatic ladybird 
beetle was introduced into the United States and readily 
attacked the scale, multiplied rapidly at Washington, and was 
sent into other localities both North and South. Lack of food 
and a native parasite destroyed the Washington colony and the 
insect failed to thrive in the North. It bred in great numbers 
for a time in Georgia, but man's spraying operations soon cut 
off its food supply and it was nearly exterminated. 

Several fungous and other diseases sometimes attack the San 



APPLE INSECTS 169 

Jose" scale with much effectiveness, especially in its southern 
range. Some of these can be transferred from tree J to tree and 
it is in the range of possibilities, with more careful study, that 
artificial cultures can be made and distributed and yield results 
of practical value in the control of this scale. No harm can come 
from such introduction of natural enemies or diseases, and the 
time will doubtless eventually come, as it apparently has in some 
localities in California especially, when these enemies and 
diseases, together with man's vigorous warfare, will rob this 
insect of most of its present terrors, making it a much less 
dangerous orchard pest. 

Remedial measures. 

Its minute size rendering it difficult to detect unless very 
numerous, the ease and rapidity with which it may be dis- 
tributed on nursery stock or cuttings, its marvelous fecundity 
enabling a few scales to soon re-infest a whole tree and the skill 
required to hit all the tiny scales with a spray, make the San 
Jose" scale one of the most difficult insect pests to successfully 
control. Extermination is practically impossible except on 
limited areas where the infested plants can be destroyed root 
and branch, and then a new infestation may occur at any time if 
more plants are set. The destruction of infested trees is advis- 
able in a very young orchard where only a few trees are involved, 
so as to put off as long as possible the general infestation, which 
will usually follow sooner or later. In older bearing orchards 
many fruit growers have succeeded in getting the pest under 
thorough control without the loss of a tree, but it means a big 
and continuous fight by a man determined to win. 

Fruit growers should become familiar with the appearance 
of the scale from dead specimens readily obtained from infested 
localities. The pest can be combated more easily and effectively 
while it is in hibernation as half-grown scales on dormant trees. 
In starting new orchards get certified, fumigated stock from 
reliable sources, carefully examine each tree, and then thoroughly 



170 FRUIT INSECTS 

fumigate the stock again with hydrocyanic acid gas before 
setting. Fumigation with this gas, if properly and thoroughly 
done, is the most effective and practicable treatment for nursery 
stock. The dipping of such trees in the lime-sulfur wash or other 
sprays is not so effective and may injure the trees, especially if 
the roots are dipped. 

After much experimentation with fumigation tents, whale- 
oil soap, undiluted kerosene and crude oil, and mechanically 
mixed oil-water sprays, these have been largely superseded by 
the cheaper, more effective and safer sprays of oil emulsions, 
miscible oils and the lime-sulfur wash, which must be brought 
in contact with each scale. Several applications of a 10 to 
15 per cent kerosene emulsion spray during the summer has 
been safely used on apples to check the development of the pest, 
and a 25 per cent crude petroleum emulsion (formula, p. 486), 
makes an effective spray for use on old apple trees as the buds 
are swelling in the spring. The miscible oils should not be 
diluted more than 1 gallon of oil to 10 or 12 of water to get 
satisfactory results. The lime-sulfur wash should be used in 
preference to other sprays on peaches, for when applied in early 
spring it kills the scale and also acts as an effective fungicide 
against the destructive peach leaf-curl fungus. Badly infested 
trees should be sprayed twice, first in late autumn after the leaves 
drop and again in early spring before growth begins. Some are 
able to successfully control the pest with only one application 
in early spring. The cheapest and safest spray, the one which 
has withstood the severest tests of experimenters and orchard- 
ists, and has given the most uniformly successful results, is the 
lime-sulfur wash. The oil emulsions or miscible oils are non- 
corrosive, more agreeable to use, spread better, so that less 
material is necessary, and they penetrate more effectively the 
crevices of the bark or the fuzzy coated twigs of apple trees, but 
unless properly applied there is always more or less danger of 
injuring the trees. The market brands of miscible oils are simply 



APPLE INSECTS 171 

poured into the required amount of water and quickly form, 
upon stirring slightly, a perfect and stable emulsion-like mixture 
ready for use. None of these sprays recommended for use on 
dormant trees can be safely used on trees in foliage. Where 
very large, old, rough-barked apple trees • are infested, only the 
most thorough kind of spraying will conquer the pest. On such 
trees it is recommended to use the crude oil emulsion spray just 
as the buds are swelling in the spring. 

.The most effective work can be done with about 100 pounds 
pressure per square inch, using a fine spray through a nozzle of 
the cyclone type. The judicious pruning away of the tops and 
long sprawling branches of infested trees will often enable the 
orchardist to do more thorough work. Remember that the 
San Jose scale is not larger than a pin head ; that the insect itself 
is well protected under the scale; and that it is therefore 
necessary to hit each tiny scale so thoroughly that the spray 
covers the insect. To do this requires powerful pumps, good 
nozzles and, most important of all, an experienced and 
determined man behind the gun who can shoot straight and 
thoroughly cover the bark of the tree with the spray from the 
surface of the ground to the tips of the smallest twigs. 

Reference 

U. S. Bur. Ent. Bull. 62. 1906. 

Nearly every Agricultural Experiment Station has published 
bulletins or circulars giving full directions for fighting the San Jose 
scale under local conditions. 



The Oyster-shell Scale 

Lepidosaphes ulmi Linnaeus (Mytilaspis pomorum Bouche) 

This cosmopolitan insect is doubtless the commonest, most 
widespread and best known of the scale-insects infesting fruit- 
trees in America, where it has been injurious in the northeastern 



172 



FRUIT INSECTS 



United States for a century. By 1850 it was abundant through- 
out the northern states east of the Mississippi. Spreading 

rather slowly, it has now reached 
most of the orchard sections in the 
far West, the South and all through 
Canada, but it is most injurious 
throughout its northern range from 
Nova Scotia southward to the lati- 
tude of Washington and westward to 
Montana. In the North the scales 
often develop on the fruit itself, caus- 
ing red spots similar to those pro- 
duced by the San Jose scale (Fig. 
174). 

The oyster-shell scale is readily 
distinguished from all other scale-in- 
sects injuriously infesting deciduous 
fruit-trees in America by its peculiar 
shape and color, resembling a minia- 
ture elongate, curved oyster shell of 
a dark brownish bark-like color. The 
convex scale covering the body of , the 
female is about \ of an inch long and 
consists of two minute cast skins at 
the smaller end and a large scaly por- 
tion gradually secreted from the body 
of the insect underneath. The male 
scale is much smaller and rarely seen 
on fruit-trees ; they are often abun- 
dant on ash. Old lifeless scales often 
adhere to the bark for several years. 
If at any time from September to May the female scales 
formed during the preceding summer be overturned, they will be 
found to cover from 30 to 100 minute, white eggs and the much 




Fig. 170. — Apple branch 
badly infested with the oyster- 
shell scale. 



APPLE INSECTS 



173 



shriveled, dead body of the mother tucked away at the smaller 
end (Fig. 173). Thus hibernation in the egg stage lasts for 
8 or 9 months, the time of hatching in the spring depending much 
on weather conditions. Hatching may begin as early as the 
middle of May in the North, but in 1907 it was a month later 
in New York. The mere specks of active six-legged, pale yel- 
lowish-white young (Fig. 171) that hatch from the eggs soon 
crawl out from under the scale and in a few hours settle down 
on the bark, insert their long, thread-like sucking tube, secrete 




Fig. 171. — Apple branch infested with oyster-shell scale showing newly hatched 

lice. 



a covering of cottony fibers, and the females never move from 
that spot (Fig. 172). The sexes are alike at birth, and after 
feeding a few days shed their skin, becoming grub-like creatures 
without legs or antennae. Growth continues with no apparent 
difference between the sexes until it is necessary to molt again, 
when it is seen that a winged insect, the male, is being developed 
under some of the scales. This second cast skin of the female 
is added to the scale-covering; a few days later the fully de- 
veloped, delicate, two-winged male insect without mouth parts 



174 FRUIT INSECTS 

emerges and seeks its mate. The yellowish females continue 
to increase in size, remain grub-like in form and secrete the large, 
brown portion of the scale, becoming full grown in August or 
early September in the North. Egg-laying soon begins, the 
body of the mother gradually shrinking into the smaller end of 
the scale, and the 30 to 100 eggs occupying most of the space 
beneath the scale. In New York, egg-laying sometimes begins 
early in August, but in 1907 it was delayed until October in 
some localities. There is but a single generation of the oyster- 
shell scale in the North, but in southern New Jersey and Penn- 
sylvania and farther south there are two generations annually. 




Fig. 172. — Old and recently set oyster-shell scales on willow. 

~This oyster-shell scale has a wide range of food-plants., It 
often nearly covers the bark of the larger branches (Fig. 170), 
and even the twigs of apple and pear trees, and is often equally as 
numerous on lilac bushes, willow, mountain ash and poplar 
trees. It may also attack quince, plum, raspberry, currant and 
fig among the fruits, and includes more than twenty-five shade 
trees and shrubs in its list of host-plants. It infests trees of all 
sizes and ages, often killing young trees and severely injuring 
large ones. Orchards that are kept in a thrifty growing condition 
and the trees not crowded rarely suffer serious injury from this 
scale, but we have seen the lower limbs especially, and sometimes 
the whole of large trees, killed by the insect where the trees were 
crowded and neglected. Usually the bark of the tree only is 



APPLE INSECTS 



175 




infested, but occasionally a few of the scales develop on the 
fruit even in the North, where there is but a single generation 
annually. 

The oyster-shell 
scale is beset by 
many natural ene- 
mies. Some of the 
ladybird beetles, the 
twice-stabbed lady- 
bird especially, de- 
vour many, and the 
eggs beneath the 
scales are preyed 
upon and often a 
large proportion of 

them 50 to 75 per Fig. 173. — Oyster-shell scales turned over to show 

X • eggs. 

cent m some cases, 

eaten by a mite, Hemisarcoptes coccisugus, in France, and 
in America by the larvae of at least five minute parasites, 
Aphelinus mytilaspidis, abnormis, and fuscipennis, Anaphes 
gracilis, and Chiloneurus diaspidinarum. These parasites 

emerge through pin-like holes in the 
scales and often a majority of the 
scales on a tree show these holes. 
It usually requires two of the para- 
sitic larvse to destroy all the eggs 
under a scale, one larva often leaving 
from 2 to 20 eggs. A few birds, the 
brown creeper, black-capped chicka- 
Fig. 174. — Apple infested dee and white-breasted nuthatch, are 

with oyster-shell scales; ^ reported ag feedmg Qn ^ The 

combined efforts of all these natural enemies often prevent 
serious injury by the oyster-shell scale and occasionally nearly 
exterminate it in a locality. 




176 FRUIT INSECTS 

Remedial treatments. 

Orchardists should reject all nursery stock bearing many 
oyster-shell scales. Nearly three fourths of the life of this pest 
is spent as eggs well protected by the scale, and no thoroughly 
successful method has yet been found for destroying these eggs 
directly. Experiments indicate that fumigation with hydrocy- 
anic acid gas, as practiced by nurserymen to kill the San Jose 
scale, often does not kill more than two thirds of the eggs of the 
oyster-shell scale. We have failed to kill many of the eggs even 
with undiluted kerosene. 

The oyster-shell scale can be satisfactorily controlled, however, 
by thorough applications of lime-sulfur as recommended for 
the San Jose scale (p. 170). The lime-sulfur seems to loosen 
the scales from the bark so that the eggs are either blown away 
or fall a prey to their numerous enemies. This method is usually 
adopted by commercial growers and is the most practicable 
means of fighting this pest in large orchards. 

Effective work can also be done against the oyster-shell scale 
in June, usually from the 1st to the 15th, when the young have 
recently hatched and are crawling about or have just begun to 
secrete a scale, by thorough spraying with a soap solution, 1 
pound in 5 gallons of water, with " Black Leaf 40 " tobacco 
extract, J of a pint in 100 gallons of water, adding 3 pounds of 
soap to each 50 gallons, or with kerosene emulsion made accord- 
ing to the standard formula and diluted with 6 parts of water. 
In the South, where two broods develop annually, the young can 
be killed with one of these sprays in August or September. 

The Scurfy Scale 

Chionaspis furfur a Fitch 

For more than half a century this native American insect 
has been one of the commonest and best known scales infesting 



APPLE INSECTS 177 

pear and apple orchards in the northeastern portion of the 
United States, and its range now includes most of Canada and 
the United States; it has been introduced into England. It 
is often so abundant as to nearly cover the bark of apple, pear, 
currant, black raspberry, Japan quince and mountain ash, 
sometimes killing these plants, but usually it is not very destruc- 
tive. Its different food-plants now number nearly twenty-five, 
including the peach and quince, besides the fruits just mentioned. 
Usually the bark only is infested by this scurfy scale, but rarely 
it gets on to the fruit and causes similar but larger reddish dis- 
colorations of the skin than the San Jose scale (Fig. 176). 



Fig. 175. — Apple branch infested with the scurfy scale. 

The rather flat, somewhat pear-shaped grayish-white female 
scales are about -J- of an inch long and when numerous give the 
bark an ashy or scurfy appearance, whence the common name 
(Fig. 175). The scale consists of the two minute cast skins at 
the smaller end and a large, broad, thin, whitish portion secreted 
by the yellowish grub-like female insect beneath, and is, there- 
fore, easily distinguished from the narrower, more convex, dark 
brown oyster-shell scale. The male scurfy scales are much 
smaller than the females, brilliantly white in color, with 
nearly parallel sides, three longitudinal ridges or keels, and 
a single .conspicuous, yellowish-brown cast skin at the end 

N 



178 



FRUIT INSECTS. 



of the scales. The males are sometimes quite numerous on 
certain branches. 

The details of the development and life history of this scale 
are very similar to those of the oyster-shell scale. There is 
evidently a single brood annually in its northern range, but two 

broods are recorded 
in Illinois, Ohio, 
Pennsylvania, Del- 
aware and south- 
ward. In 1895 we 
reared in New York 
two generations of 
the scurfy scale and 
one generation only 
of the oyster-shell 
scale from eggs 
which hatched May 
13 on trees in an in- 
sectary, and found 
corroborative evi- 
dence on trees in 
the field, but this 
was doubtless an exceptional season. The minute, purplish 
young which hatched May 13, molted first early in June, and 
the females the second time about a week later. By the middle 
of June the males had emerged and by July 9 many of the eggs 
were laid, and these hatched in about ten days. On August 22, 
a mature male and female in the same stage as those on the tree 
in the insectary, were seen in the field, and eggs were laid during 
the first three weeks in September. Owing to the purplish 
bodies of the young and half-grown scurfy scales and the 
thinness of the scale, they are not nearly so conspicuous on the 
bark as the oyster-shell species. The number of purplish-red 
eggs laid by the females varies from 10 to 85, averaging about 




Fig. 176. — Apple infested with scurfy scale. 



APPLE INSECTS 179 

50, and these hibernate with the dead and shriveled bodies of 
the mothers under the scales. 

The scurfy scale apparently has fewer enemies than the 
oyster-shell scale, as but a single parasite, Ablerus clisiocampce, 
is recorded. Two ladybird beetles, the twice-stabbed lady- 
bird and a species of Hyperaspidius, however, devour many 
of them. 

Remedial treatments. 

The remedial measures recommended for the oyster-shell 
scale will also control the scurfy scale. 

Putnam's Scale 
Aspidiotus ancylus Putnam 

This native American scale insect is common and widely 
distributed, but is rarely injurious except upon plum trees and 
currant bushes, which are sometimes 
incrusted as badly as with the much 
more dangerous and destructive San 
Jose scale. Apple, pear, peach, nec- 
tarine, cherry and orange trees, be- 
sides several shade trees, are also 
among its food-plants. The mature, 
dark gray or blackish, nearly circular 

female Scale (Fig. 177) Can be dis- Fig. 177. — Putnam's scale, en- 
,. -iii» ,, r, i»-.L larged. Redrawn from Joutel. 

tmguisned irom the European iruit- 

scale or the cherry scale by microscopic characters only, but with 
a hand-lens it is usually readily separated from the San Jose scale 
by its exposed orange exuvium situated at one side of the center. 
It passes the winter in a nearly full-grown condition. The males 
appear in April and the females are oviparous, depositing from 
30 to 40 eggs under the scales in late spring or early summer. 
The crawling young lice hatch mostly in June and July, and there 
is but a single generation in a year in northern latitudes. 




180 FRUIT INSECTS 

Parasitic enemies kill many of the insects under the scales. 
As the species spreads slowly, cut out and burn the worst 
infested branches or currant canes and thoroughly drench 
the plant with any of the winter washes recommended for the 
San Jose scale, or the young and recently set scales may be killed 
by spraying with the contact insecticides recommended for 
summer treatment of the oyster-shell scale (p. 176). 

The Greedy Scale 
Aspidiotus rapax Corns tock 

This European scale insect appeared in California many years 
ago. It is now abundant there and has gradually spread to the 
southeast as far as Florida. It attacks various orchard trees, 
more commonly orange, apple and pear, sometimes appearing 
on the fruits. The mature female scale is very convex and of a 
drab or yellowish-brown color, with a dark brown exuvial spot 
often showing at one side of the center. In California, this 
greedy scale may be found in all stages at almost any time of the 
year, even hibernating as eggs, adult females or young. The 
number of generations annually has not been determined. Four 
birds, the myrtle and Audubon warblers, wren-tit and bush-tit, 
eat this scale, their stomachs sometimes being filled with it. 

The winter washes recommended for the San Jose scale will 
usually control this greedy scale. 

The Apple Leaf-hopper 

Empoasca mali Le Baron 

This is considered the worst all-round leaf -hopper pest, as it 
works in injurious numbers on so many different plants. 
Swarms of the active little creatures may attack the foliage of 
apple, currant, gooseberry, raspberry, potato, sugar beets, beans 



APPLE INSECTS 



181 




Fig. 178. — The 
apple leaf-hopper, 
adult (X 11). 



and celery ; more than a dozen other plants, including weeds, 
grasses, grains and shade trees, are also among its food-plants. 
Puncturing the tissues with their tiny beaks, 
these leaf -hoppers suck the juice, giving the 
leaves a peculiar, mottled, yellowish appear- 
ance and finally causing them to curl. 
Nursery trees, especially apples, are often 
seriously injured, the insects working mostly 
on the undersides of the leaves. The adult 
insects are about ^ of an inch long and of a 
pale yellowish-green color with 6 or 8 distin- 
guishing white spots on the front margin of 
the pronotum (Fig. 178). When disturbed 
the pale green young or nymphs run in all 
directions, but the adults can jump quickly 
and fly away. The apple leaf-hopper hibernates in both the 
egg and the adult stages. The winter eggs are deposited in the 
bark of the smaller branches just below the epidermis, two- 
year-old wood being most often selected. The position of the 

egg is indicated by a low blister-like eleva- 
tion of the bark about -£$ of an inch in 
length and half as wide. The egg itself is 
white, elongate, slightly curved and is 
about ¥ V of an inch in length. The winter 
eggs hatch soon after the leaf buds burst 
in the spring and the hibernating adults 
appear on the trees about the same time. 
The young hoppers pass through five 
nymphal stages and acquire wings at the 
fifth molt (Fig. 179), about a month after 
hatching. The summer eggs are not in- 
serted in the bark, but in the petiole and 
larger veins of the leaves. There are four generations annually 
in the latitude of Iowa. The first generation works on the 




Fig. 179.— Fifth 
stage nymph of the 
apple leaf-hopper. En- 
larged. 



182 FRUIT INSECTS 

lower leaves of nursery trees, doing little real injury, but the 
later broods, feeding on the tender terminal leaves of the grow- 
ing shoots in the latter part of June, July and August, seriously 
retard the growth and thus cause the production of stunted, 
undersized trees. These hoppers are also an important factor 
in the dissemination of fire blight among nursery trees. 

Remedial treatment. 

These leaf-hoppers can be most effectively combated during 
their nymphal stages, for the adults are so well protected by 
their wings that applications strong enough to kill them usually 
injure the foliage. A 10 per cent kerosene emulsion or a solution 
of whale-oil or any good soap (1 pound in 6 or 8 gallons of water) 
will kill all the nymphs that are thoroughly hit. Efficient work 
can also be done with " Black Leaf 40 " tobacco extract, one 
pint to 100 gallons of water. In the case of nursery stock it is 
practically impossible to hit enough of the young hoppers in the 
curled leaves to pay for the labor and expense involved. Dip- 
ping the infested tips into pails or dippers containing a soap 
solution, one pound in 8 gallons of water, kills practically all 
the young hoppers and is an entirely satisfactory method of 
controlling the insect on apple nursery stock. The dipping 
should be done in the latter part of June and again about a 
month later. At these times the maximum number of nymphs 
will be found on the trees. 

Many of the adults can be captured as they jump and fly 
away from the disturbed plants by holding near by a shield 
covered with some sticky tanglefoot-like substance, 1 pound 
of melted resin in 1 pint of castor oil or " castorine." In Mis- 
souri nurseries the hoppers are sometimes captured on sticky 
shields mounted on a two-wheeled cart drawn by a horse. 

References 

Minn. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 112, pp. 145-164. 1908. 
Iowa Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 111. 1910. 



APPLE INSECTS 183 

Bird's Apple Leaf-hopper 
Empoasca flavescens variety birdii Goding 

This leaf-hopper appeared in injurious numbers on apple 
in Illinois about 1889, and also attacked hops, beans, weeds 
and walnut trees. Adults were found from May until 
after heavy frosts. They differ from Empoasca mali in often 
•being brighter yellow in color and in having not more than 3 
white spots on the pronotum. Birdii is considered a color 
variety of Fabricius' flavescens and is distinguished by a smoky 
band which crosses the middle of the elytra. 



CHAPTER V 
APPLE INSECTS — BORERS AND MISCELLANEOUS 

The Apple Bud-borer 

Epinotia pyricolana Murtfeldt 

The cream or pinkish colored caterpillars, about \ of an inch 
long, of this Tortricid moth attack young apple trees both in 
orchards and nurseries, and often the water-sprouts on old 
apple trees. They mine through the opening terminal buds 
and continue boring down the twig for an inch or two. Later 
side shoots are also attacked, and it is often necessary to re- 
bud trees being top-worked by budding. The insect has been 
quite destructive in Missouri, Delaware, Maryland and Vir- 
ginia, and as it occurs in nurseries may spread to other states. 

As its whole life-cycle occupies only about six weeks, there 
are probably four broods annually in its southern range, the 
second and third broods doing the most damage and its work 
being the most noticeable in August. The ends of the twigs 
are killed and a leaf petiole often remains attached to the tips 
of infested twigs through the winter, thus indicating the pres- 
ence of the insect, which usually hibernates as a full-grown 
caterpillar in its burrow, but occasionally in a silken hibernac- 
ulum or case covered with bits of bark and dirt on the trunk 
or branches of the tree. The caterpillars transform in May, 
and the little, bluish-gray moths prettily marked with brown 
bands and white dashes and having a wing-expanse of about 
| an inch, emerge and lay eggs from which come a brood of 
the bud-borers in June. In July and September the second 

184 



APPLE INSECTS — BORERS AND MISCELLANEOUS 185 

and third broods of the borers get in their destructive work, 
and probably a fourth brood appears in October. 

Observations in Arkansas indicate that in the Ozark region 
part of the first brood larvae attack the fruit, that the remainder 
of the first and nearly all the second brood attack the twigs 
and water-sprouts and that the larger part of the later broods 
go back to the fruit. Its work on the fruit is similar to that 
of the codlin-moth. Many of the caterpillars of the later 
broods are killed by parasites, and sometimes 50 per cent of 
those in hibernation are parasitized by Bracon mellitor. 

A good preventive measure in young orchards or nurseries 
is to remove the water sprouts from old apple trees near by, as 
the insect often breeds in these sprouts. As described above, 
the clinging leaf petioles will reveal many of the infested twigs 
in winter, and by a judicious pruning and burning of these and 
other terminals, most- of the hibernating caterpillars can be 
destroyed. 

References 

Del. Agr. Exp. Sta. 12th Rept. for 1900, pp. 194-199. 1901. 
U. S. Bur. Ent. Bull. 80, Pt. Ill, p. 46. 1909. 

The Round-headed Apple-tree Borer 

Saperda Candida Fabricius 

This native American borer ranks among the most destruc- 
tive enemies to apple and quince culture throughout the north- 
ern and eastern portions of the United States and also in Canada. 
It also occurs in restricted localities in the Southern states. 
Pear trees are sometimes attacked and its wild food plants 
include crab apples and thorns of different species, mountain 
ash, choke cherry, Juneberry and most of the kinds of trees 
and shrubs in the family Pomacese. Although present in most 
apple and quince orchards throughout the infested territory, 
it often occurs in injurious numbers in quite restricted localities 



186 



FRUIT INSECTS 




Fig. 



180. — Round-headed apple-tree borer, full- 
grown larva ( X 2) . 



or spots. We have seen one quince orchard ruined by this 
borer, while another orchard about two miles away owned and 
cared for by the same fruit-grower was never seriously infested. 

The presence of this 
borer is usually easily 
detected at the base of 
the tree in the spring by 
the little piles of saw- 
dust-like castings 
thrown out from an 
opening through the 
bark into its burrow. Often several of the borers work in a tree 
and the whole tree has a weak and sickly appearance with leaves 
small and yellowish. Trees of all ages, from nursery stock to 
large orchard trees, are attacked and often killed. Rank vege- 
table growths of weeds, grass and water-sprouts around the 
trunks of trees often seem to afford more favorable conditions 
for this pest. The borers work mostly in the base of the trunk 
often below the surface of the ground and in the large roots. 
Sometimes they infest 
the upper portions of 
the trunk and rarely 
the larger limbs. The 
burrows or tunnels 
begin in the bark and 
sap wood, but soon ex- 
tend for several inches 
up and down in the solid 
wood, often reaching 
the heart of small trees. 

The borer when full grown is a light yellow, legless, fleshy 
grub about an inch in length with a dark brown head and black- 
ish mandibles (Fig. 180). The first thoracic segment is broader 
than the rest of the body and bears a large patch of many small 




Fig. 



181. — Round-headed apple-tree borer, fe- 
male and male beetles. 



APPLE INSECTS — BORERS AND MISCELLANEOUS 187 



brownish tubercles on the dorsum and a smaller patch on the 
ventral side. The constrictions between the segments of the 
body are deep and the elevated dorsal and ventral portions of 
the first seven abdominal segments are roughened. The adult 
insect or parent of this borer is a handsome beetle measuring 
about an inch in length, the male beetle being considerably 
slenderer and shorter than the female (Fig. 181). The whole 
insect, appendages included, is clothed in a velvet-like coating 




Fig. 182. — Round-headed apple-tree borer in its burrow in a small apple tree. 

of fine, smoothly-laid hairs, giving it a very neat appearance. 
The long antennae nearly as long as the body, and the legs are 
gray. The head and ventral portion of the body are a beau- 
tiful silvery white, and from the white face of the beetle two 
broad, white stripes extend horizontally backward over the 
head, across the thorax, and along each wing-cover to the tip. 
The general color of the wing-covers and dorsal portion of thorax 
is light brown, and the blackish eyes are very conspicuous on the 
white head. 



188 FRUIT INSECTS 

The round holes (Fig. 184) nearly as large as a lead pencil 
in the base of the trunk of trees infested by this round-headed 
borer are the exit holes of the beetles which have developed 
from the grubs or borers. The beetles emerge mostly at night 
and remain hidden and inactive during the day. Even in 
northern localities some of them emerge in April, many of them 
in May and June, and there are records of their emergence in 
different localities during the next two or three months. Prob- 
ably most of the eggs are laid in June, but oviposition may 
continue to September even in the same locality. The smooth- 
shelled, pale, rust-brown egg measures an eighth of an inch in 
length, by one third as wide and is slightly compressed. The 
eggs are laid in the bark, usually near the ground. The female 
beetle first makes an incision or slit in the bark, probably 
with her sharp, horny jaws, but one observer says it is made 
with the ovipositor. The egg is deposited in the incision, 
sometimes at the bottom next to the wood, but generally in 
an opening made in one side of the cut halfway through the 
bark, nearly a quarter of an inch from the cut. It is then 
covered with a gummy fluid that sometimes fills the slit and 
hides the egg, but some observers report that the eggs are 
easily found. From eggs laid June 15, larvae hatched in about 
three weeks in New Hampshire. 

The young larvae soon tunnel through the bark (Fig. 182) to 
the sapwood in which they work for a year or more, often ex- 
tending their shallow flat burrows downward below the surface 
of the ground and remaining dormant in winter. The borers 
begin work early in the spring, often in March or April, and 
during the second year of their growth they extend their burrows 
farther into the solid wood, sometimes going through and girdling 
young trees. The tunnels often extend upward and downward 
at various angles in the tree for several inches. Most of the 
sawdust-like excrement of the grub is packed in its burrow, but 
some of it is pushed out through small holes eaten through the 



APPLE INSECTS — SOBERS AND MISCELLANEOUS 189 



bark and it often accumulates in little piles at the base of the 
tree. It is generally believed that it requires three years for 
this apple-borer to complete its life-cycle. During the third 
summer the grub sinks its tunnel deeper into the wood, enlarges 
it and finally extends it outward to the bark. Behind itself 
the grub packs the tunnel full of sawdust and coarse, woody 
fibers, and the outward end near the bark is also similarly 




Fig. 183. — Round-headed apple-tree borer pupa in its burrow. 

plugged. On smooth-barked trees a small, slightly sunken area 
of dead bark often marks the end of this tunnel, and thus 
enables one to locate the borer from the outside before it trans- 
forms and emerges. A small chamber an inch or more in 
length is left near the end of the tunnel where the grub hiber- 
nates practically secure from the entrance of enemies in either 
direction. Doubtless some of the grubs do not make this final 
preparation for their further development into the adult insect 
until the third spring. Early the third spring, often in May, 



190 FRUIT INSECTS 

the grub or borer sheds its skin in this specially prepared chamber 
and appears in the pupal stage, a delicate, yellowish-white ob- 
ject, somewhat resembling the adult insect (Fig. 183). This 

pupa gradually grows 
darker in color and in 
about three weeks trans- 
forms to the beautiful 
adult or beetle which 
soon emerges from a 
round hole (Fig. 184) 
about the size of a lead 
pencil cut through the 
bark with its strong, 
sharp mandibles. 

As it spends most of 
the three years of its 
life inside the tree, this 
apple-borer has few nat- 
ural enemies. Wood- 

ft* 184. - Extt ^hole^the round-headed peckerg get gome of ^ 

grubs, and at least one 
hymenopterous parasite, Cenoccelius populator, sometimes helps 
to reduce their numbers. 

Preventive and remedial measures. 

Borers are among the most difficult to control of all insects 
attacking fruit-trees. No thoroughly satisfactory method of 
preventing the ravages of this round-headed apple-borer has 
yet been found. The owner of the quince orchard mentioned 
in the first paragraph of the discussion of this borer thoroughly 
tested the commonly recommended preventive washes and 
shields besides constantly practicing the "digging-out method." 
Yet so severe was the infestation that all measures failed and 
the orchard was ruined, the owner giving up the fight and 
destroying the trees. The statement often made that paper 





APPLE INSECTS — BORERS AND MISCELLANEOUS 191 

protectors not only prevent the borers from getting into the 
tree, but also the beetles from emerging, was refuted in this 
orchard, where the beetles sometimes emerged safely through 
collars of brick mortar more than a quarter of an inch thick. 

In spite of the failure to control the pest in this unusually 
severely infested orchard, the experiment did demonstrate that 
certain preventive or deterrent measures were of value. Kero- 
sene emulsion sprayed upon the trunks of the trees several 
times during the summer seemed to be quite an effective deter- 
rent. One of the best preventives tried was tarred paper 
closely wrapped around the tree from the roots to a foot or 
more above ground and well tied on, especially at the top. 
Alkaline washes of any kind of soap made into a thick paint 
with a solution of caustic potash or washing soda and about 1 
pint of crude carbolic acid added to every 10 gallons of the 
wash have often been used as deterrents with good results. 
Two or three applications should be made from early May to 
July, thoroughly covering the trunk from the branches down 
to the roots. Instead of tarred paper, old newspapers or wire 
mosquito netting may be used as mechanical protectors. Let 
the netting loosely encircle the tree except at the top so the 
beetles cannot reach the bark of the tree through the meshes. 
These open wire protectors will last two or more seasons, while 
the close paper ones should be removed in the fall. Some 
orchardists make a mound of earth from five to twelve inches 
high around the base of the trees in early spring, thus forcing 
the beetles to lay their eggs higher up on the trunk where the 
grubs can be more easily found and dug out. The mounds 
should be removed in early autumn. A combination of this 
mounding system or a wire or paper protector with the applica- 
tions of a deterrent wash above the protector if thoroughly 
done should effectually prevent many of the borers from getting 
into the trees. 

Clean culture is one of the best preventive measures. Do 



192 FRUIT INSECTS 

not allow rank growths of weeds, water-sprouts or other vege- 
tation to accumulate about the base of the tree. 

The surest and best remedy for this pest after it gets into the 
tree is the old and much practiced digging or cutting out 
method. Experienced orchardists are often able to readily 
locate the borer by the oozing of sap or by particles of sawdust 
coming from minute holes in the bark leading into the burrows. 
It is then often an easy matter to reach the borer with a sharp 
knife or chisel, or a wire may be pushed into the tunnel until 
the grub is impaled. Great care must be practiced or more 
injury may result from the knife than from the borer. The 
trees should be thoroughly examined in early spring, not later 
than May, for the borers are usually more easily located then 
by their sawdust-like castings, and it is also important to destroy 
those that are then transforming to the beetles. Continue to 
use the knife during the summer whenever a borer can be located, 
and go over the trees thoroughly in early autumn to get the 
younger borers working just beneath the bark. Where valuable 
trees have been riddled or girdled by the borers, or in trying 
to dig them out, the tree may be saved by putting in several 
bridge grafts at the base, as is often done when trees are girdled 
by mice or rabbits. Wounds made in removing borers should 
be coated with gas tar to exclude moisture and prevent the 
development of fungous diseases. 

Other kinds of borers in shade or park trees have been suc- 
cessfully treated by injecting a little carbon bisulfide into the 
small hole from which the sawdust-like excrement is being pushed 
out, and the hole quickly plugged with putty or grafting wax. 
The deadly fumes of this very volatile liquid penetrate the bur- 
row and finally kill the borers. Orchardists should give this 
sensible method a thorough trial. A similar treatment has been 
successfully used by some fruit-growers. Wherever the saw- 
dust is seen coming through the bark, kerosene is freely applied 
which is absorbed by the castings and carried by capillary 



APPLE INSECTS — BORERS AND MISCELLANEOUS 193 

attraction through the burrow, finally coming in contact with 

and killing the grub. The small amount of kerosene necessary 

to accomplish this is said not to injure the tree. Do not waste 

time and materials in trying to reach the borer through the 

large round holes, as large as a lead pencil, for these are the 

exit or emerging holes of the adult insect or beetle. The grub 

or borer has finished its nefarious work and transformed into 

the handsome beetle, which made the hole, and flew away to 

seek its mate and provide for more destructive work by their 

progeny. 

Reference 

U. S. Bur. Ent, Circ. 32 (third revise). 1907. 



The Spotted Apple-tree Borer 
Saperda cretata Newman 

This Cerambycid beetle is very similar to its near relative, 
the round-headed apple-borer, 
both in appearance and habits. 
The beetle of the spotted borer 
is about the same size and form, 
but differs in being of a darker 
brown color with its legs, antennae, 
head and the middle portion of the 
ventral surface of the same brown 
color. Two broad, silvery white 
stripes extend along the sides of 
the thorax and abdomen and there 
are two similar narrow stripes on 
the dorsum of the thorax. The 
continuous white stripes on the 
wing-covers of the beetle of the 
round-headed borer are replaced 
by two large white spots on the 




Fig. 185. — The spotted apple-tree 
borer (X 2|). 



o 



194 FRUIT INSECTS 

wing-covers of this borer (Fig. 185). Although this insect 
is widely distributed throughout practically the same ter- 
ritory as its near relative, it has been recorded as injurious 
only in Iowa and Michigan. Besides injuring apple and wild 
crab trees, it also attacks Juneberry and thorn. The beetles are 
said to lay their eggs in the bark in pairs, half an inch or more 
apart. The grubs of each pair upon hatching then work in 
opposite directions around the trunk or branch, at first just 
beneath the bark, and afterwards entering the hard wood. 

The remedial measures suggested for the round-headed borer, 
Saperda Candida, will also apply to this spotted borer, except 
that the latter often works in the larger branches as well as the 
trunk, thus rendering it necessary to extend the protective or 
preventive treatments to the branches. 

Reference 
U. S. Bur. Ent. Circ. 32 (third revise). 1907. 

The larva of another long-horned beetle (Leptostylus aculif- 
erus Say) sometimes burrows under the bark of diseased apple 
trees. The beetle is about ^ inch in length, and brownish- 
gray in color. The wing-covers are ornamented with numerous 
small thorn-like points and are crossed, behind the middle, 
with a V-shaped band, margined with black. The adults 
may be found from August to September. 

The Flat-headed Apple-tree Borer 

Chrysobothris femorata Fabricius 

This Buprestid beetle is widely distributed throughout the 
United States and southern Canada. It is often found basking 
in the sunshine on fallen trees and the warm, sunny sides of 
the trunks of many kinds of trees, but the shy creature is not 
easily captured, as it runs rapidly or flies readily when ap- 



APPLE INSECTS — BORERS AND MISCELLANEOUS 195 



proached. The favorite natural host-plants of the insect are 
doubtless oak trees, but it attacks a great variety of wild and 
cultivated plants. Among orchard fruits it is often injurious 
to apple, quince, pear, peach, plum and apricot trees and cur- 
rant bushes. Pecan trees are attacked by it in Alabama, and 
its food-plants among shade and forest trees now include oak, 
mountain ash, maple, box-elder, hickory, chestnut, sycamore, 
horse-chestnut, linden and willow. 

The common name of this insect, 
the flat-headed borer, was suggested 
by the peculiar flat-headed appearance 
of the larva or grub to distinguish it 
from the round-headed borer, Saperda 
Candida, often working on the same 
trees. While the flat-headed borer is 
more common, it is usually a less dan- 
gerous pest than the latter species, be- 
cause it rarely attacks thrifty, healthy 
trees. It seems to prefer the warmer 
southern sides of young trees that are 
suffering from lack of cultivation, un- 
congenial soil, climatic or other disease- 
producing conditions. 

This destructive short-horned metallic beetle is of a flattish 
oblong form (Fig. 186) and about half an inch long, varying 
considerably in size. The antennae are short, the eyes, large, 
and the front legs are armed with a conspicuous tooth. The 
upper surface of the body is of a dark, coppery-brown color 
and fresh specimens are often coated in spots with a powdery 
gray substance that easily rubs off. Each wing-cover has three 
slightly raised lines, the outer two of which are interrupted by 
two impressed, irregular, transverse spots of a brassy green 
color, dividing each wing-cover into three nearly equal portions. 
The under surface of the body and the legs are of a bright me- 




Fig. 186. — 
fl a t-h e a d e d 
borer (X 3|). 



Adult of the 
apple-tree 



196 FRUIT INSECTS 

tallic greenish-blue, shining like burnished copper when the 
insect is flying. The males are smaller than the females and 
have shining green heads. These sun-loving beetles begin to 
appear early in May and continue through July even into 
September. The females deposit their yellow, irregularly 
ribbed eggs, about J^ of an inch in length, in cracks or 
under bark scales, usually several eggs in a place, either on 
the trunk or branches, and almost always on the warmer south- 
ern side of the tree, or on recently felled logs in sunny locations. 
The larva or grub which hatches from these eggs soon eats its 

way through the bark and ex- 
cavates a broad, flat, irregular 
channel, often extending into the 
sapwood just under the bark. 
Part of the channel is packed 
with sawdust-like castings of the 
grubs. 

Fig. 187. — Flat-headed apple-tree A . 1 ■. ?, 

borer (x l 1 ). ^ single borer may oiten 

girdle the trunk and kill small 
trees. The full-grown, light-yellow, legless grub is about an 
inch long with its second thoracic segment much broadened and 
flattened (Fig. 187). On the upper and lower surfaces of this 
segment are large, roughened spots with two smooth diverging 
linear depressions extending through the dorsal spot and one 
medially through the ventral spot. The grub habitually rests 
in a curved position and gets its full growth during a single 
summer. It finally extends its burrow outward nearly through 
the bark, then digs a little deeper into the solid wood, forming 
a chamber in which it transforms through the tender white 
pupal stage (Fig. 188) to the adult insect. In the north these 
pupal chambers are made in the spring, the winter months 
being passed as grubs, but farther south pupation may occur 
in November, the pupae hibernating. The pupal period lasts 
about three weeks in the spring, and the beetles cut their way 




APPLE INSECTS — BORERS AND MISCELLANEOUS 197 




Fig. 188. — Pupa of 
the flat-headed apple- 
tree borer. 



out through an elliptical hole. Thus this flat-headed borer 
has a much shorter life-cycle than the round-headed species, 
from which it also differs much in all its 
stages and in its habits. 

Although snugly hidden in its bur- 
row beneath the bark, this flat-headed 
borer does not escape from natural ene- 
mies. Woodpeckers and ants devour 
many of the grubs and pupae and the fol- 
lowing parasites prey upon it : the Braco- 
nids, Bracon charus and pectinator, Spa- 
thius pallidus ; the Ichneumonids, Labena 
apicalis and grallator; and one or more 
species of Chalcids. 

Remedial suggestions. 

As healthy, well-established trees are rarely attacked by this 
borer, its ravages can be largely prevented by keeping young 
trees in a thrifty, growing condition. Many of the suggestions 
for controlling the round-headed borer are also applicable to 
this species. The deterrent soap and emulsion washes and pro- 
tective coverings have been found effective, but must be applied 
farther up the trunk and on to the larger branches. Two or 
more applications of the washes should be made, beginning in 
May and continuing into July. As the location of the larval 
channels are often revealed by slight discolorations or diseased 
conditions of the bark or by sawdust-like castings thrown out 
of the burrows, the culprit can often be easily reached with a 
sharp tool. Several of the grubs often infest a young tree, 
completely undermining the bark over considerable areas ; 
we once found on a small apricot tree three pupae in an area not 
larger than a penny. In cases of such severe infestation the 
trees should be removed and burned in autumn or before May. 

A closely related Buprestid beetle, Chrysobothris mali Horn, 
which has been given the common name of " California big- 



198 FRUIT INSECTS 

headed borer" has been recorded as injurious to apple trees in 
Arizona. If its life habits are similar to those of Chrysobothris 
femorata just discussed, the same remedial measures should 
prove effective in controlling it. 

Reference 
U. S. Bur. Ent. Circ. 32 (third revise). 1907. 

The Apple Wood-stainer 
Pterocyclon (Monarthrum) mali Fitch 

Half a century ago this minute, reddish-brown Scolytid 
beetle (Fig. 189), only about T V of an inch in length, was 

reported from Massachusetts as rid- 
dling the trunks of apple trees with 
their burrows. The insect belongs 
to the interesting group of beetles 
known as Ambrosia beetles, which 
Fig. 189. — The apple wood- propagate a mold-like fungus in their 
stainer beetle (x 14). burrows that stains the walls black, 

and is eaten by the beetles and fed by them to their offspring 
or grubs. The parent beetle bores through the bark into the 
wood for about \ of an inch, then excavates a main 
transverse tunnel or gallery in the solid wood from the sides 
pf which short galleries made and occupied by grubs extend at 
right angles upward or downward. This wood-stainer breeds 
only in diseased or dying, felled or girdled trees, and sawed 
mahogany lumber. Its food-plants include nearly twenty 
different forest or timber trees, as well as the apple, orange and 
morello cherry among fruit-trees. It has also been called the 
Lesser Cask-beetle because of its fondness for boring into wine, 
beer and vinegar casks, often doing much damage in this way. 
As there are no recent records of its injuring orchard trees, it 
needs no further discussion as a fruit pest. The deterrent 




APPLE INSECTS — BORERS AND MISCELLANEOUS 199 

washes recommended for the larger apple-borers will doubtless 
prove effective should the insect again appear in injurious num- 
bers in orchards. 



The Bronze Apple-tree Weevil 

Magdalis cenescens Leconte 

In Oregon, Washington, Montana and British Columbia apple 
trees, particularly young trees, are sometimes attacked and killed 
by this small snout-beetle or 
weevil (Fig. 190). Weak or 
sickly trees are more liable to 
attack . The insect may work 
on the trunk, but more often 
makes its tunnels under the 
bark of the branches and may 
continue its work after the 
trees are dead. The little, 
plump, legless, white grubs 




Fig. 190. — The bronze apple-tree 
weevil (X 10). 



about I of an inch in length may extend their narrow burrows 
for an inch or two in various directions under the bark. Each 
burrow ends in a little cell where the grub transforms, probably 
in the spring, through the pupal stage to the adult or weevil. 
There is apparently but one generation of the insect in a year, 
the weevils emerging through small, round holes in the bark 
from early April until August, and laying their smooth, shining, 
yellowish-white eggs in little horizontal holes dug in the bark. 
The slender, blackish-bronze colored weevils, measuring about 
i of an inch in length, often feed upon the leaves of 
apple and cherry, sometimes nearly defoliating small trees. 
The wild food-plant of the insect seems to be a species of thorn. 

Two Chalcid parasites destroy large numbers of the grubs. 

The repellent soap and lye washes or the kerosene emulsion 
recommended for the round-headed apple-tree borer have been 



200 FRUIT INSECTS 

found effective against this bronze apple weevil if an applica- 
tion is made early in April and repeated late in May. Badly 
infested trees that are dying should be removed and burned 
before the weevils begin to emerge in April. 

Reference 
U. S. Bur. Ent. Bull. 22, pp. 37-44. 1900. 

The Twig-pruner 

Elaphidion villosum Fabricius 

In early autumn an orchardist's attention may be attracted 
to twigs or branches from a few inches to two or three feet in 
length which have fallen to the ground, having been deftly 
pruned from the trees by this twig-pruner. An examination 
of the severed end of the branch will reveal a smoothly cut 
surface, near the center of which is an oval opening plugged 
with a wad of fine shavings and sawdust. If the branch be 
split open, it will usually be found to have been tunneled, often 
from 10 to 15 inches, by a slender, whitish grub nearly f of an 
inch in length, then lying in the tunnel near the severed end, or 
the insect may have already reached the pupal or even the 
adult or beetle stage. The grub is quite hairy, and it has three 
pairs of minute legs. Usually the grubs transform in the 
spring and the beetles continue to emerge from June till Sep- 
tember. This Cerambycid beetle is a slender, reddish-brown 
insect rather sparsely covered with yellowish, somewhat mottled 
pubescence. It varies considerably in shape and size, measur- 
ing from \ to f of an inch in length with the antennae of the 
female a little shorter and those of the male longer than the 
body. The proximal joints of the antennae are armed with small 
spines, and each wing-cover terminates in two small spines. 

The eggs are inserted in the smaller twigs of living trees in 
summer. The young grub hatching therefrom feeds for a 



APPLE INSECTS — BOBERS AND MISCELLANEOUS 201 

time on the softer tissues under the bark, packing its burrow 
with its sawdust-like castings and gradually boring towards 
the base of the twig. As the borer grows it often consumes the 
larger portion of the wood and ejects some of its castings 
through holes made in the bark. Later it bores along the center, 
making a more or less oval chamber. Early in the fall it eats 
away nearly all the wood, plugs the end of its burrow and waits 
for the wind to break off the nearly severed branch. The pur- 
pose of the grub in this pruning operation is not definitely 
known. Early writers attributed to the grubs an unwarranted 
degree of intelligence, almost reasoning powers, by which they 
were considered infallible, knowing just how far to cut and 
being able to vary the operation to meet the circumstances in 
each particular case. The most plausible explanation yet sug- 
gested is that the grub nearly severs the branches and plugs 
the free end of the burrow to provide for the emergence of the 
weak-jawed beetles, which could never eat their way out through 
the solid wood. Under natural conditions in the field the life- 
cycle of this twig-pruner is doubtless completed in a year, but 
when infested twigs are gathered and kept in dry situations, it 
may require three or four years to breed the beetles. 

Oak and maple are favorite food-plants of this insect and 
the ground is often strewn with severed branches under these 
trees. It attacks many other forest or shade trees and shrubs, 
and the following fruits are also pruned by it, sometimes quite 
severely : apple, pear, quince, peach, plum, grape and orange. 

Several birds, woodpeckers, blue jays and chickadees destroy 
many of the grubs or pupae in the fallen twigs. A parasite, 
Bracon eurygaster, has been reared from infested twigs. 

The collection and burning of the fallen branches in autumn 
or early spring will effectually control the pest. 

Reference 
TJ. S. Bur. Ent. Cire. 130. 1910. 



202 FRUIT INSECTS 

The Twig-girdler 

Oncideres cingulata Say 

Twigs and branches less than half an inch in diameter on 
many kinds of forest and shade trees and on several of the 
orchard fruits are often neatly girdled by a handsome, robust, 
ash-sprinkled, reddish-brown beetle a little more than half 
an inch in length with antennae longer than its body and a 
broad, ashy-colored belt around the middle of the wing-covers 
and across the thorax ; closer inspection also reveals numerous 




Fig. 191. — The twig-girdler. 

light brown spots on the wing-covers. The beetles appear 
during July and August and the girdling is done by the females 
standing on the twig head downwards and cutting the girdle 
section by section about an eighth of an inch wide and extending 
to the heartwood, so that the branch is easily broken off by 
high winds (Fig. 191). During the girdling process, which 
often occupies half a day, the female stops several times to 
move outward on the twig and tuck an egg underneath the 
bark at the base of a side shoot or an aborted bud. The girdled 
twigs are soon broken off and fall to the ground, where most of 
the eggs hatch by autumn. In the spring the grubs bore into 
the solid wood and often make a channel 2 inches long and 
disposing of nearly all the woody portion of the twig, but always 



APPLE INSECTS — BOBERS AND MISCELLANEOUS 203 

leaving the bark intact. The white, legless grubs about 
f of an inch long have a row of short, parallel, chitinous 
ridges near the front margin of the head, a portion of the dor- 
sum of the thorax is striated and elevated, and there are double, 
transverse rows of minute, brownish, toothlike projections 
both on the dorsal and ventral portions of the third to the tenth 
segments. Early in July these grubs block up the ends of 
their channels and all holes or cracks in the bark with small 
shavings and at one end transform through the pupal stage to 
the adult insect in about two weeks. 

This twig-girdler is common throughout the eastern and 
southern portions of the United States, and while working 
mostly on elm, hickory and other forest trees, it includes the 
following fruit-trees among its food-plants : apple, pear, quince, 
peach, plum, cherry and persimmon. The beetles are the 
depredators, their progeny doing no harm by working in the 
dead twigs on the ground. Sometimes the ground under shade 
trees is strewn with the girdled twigs, but fruit-trees are rarely 
seriously injured. 

The remedy is simple. Gather and burn the fallen twigs 
in autumn, winter or early spring, thus destroying the eggs and 
young grubs in their hibernating quarters. 

References 

Kan. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 77, pp. 56-62. 1898. 
Okl. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 91. 1911. 

Flea-beetles 

At least half a dozen different kinds of these small, active 
beetles, with enlarged hind legs that enable them to jump like 
fleas, sometimes attack and seriously injure young apple trees, 
especially newly budded or grafted nursery stock and seedlings. 
The beetles swarm from near-by weeds upon the trees in May 
and June and eat small holes through the leaves, often riddling 



204 FRUIT INSECTS 

the foliage and causing the death of young grafts or seedlings. 
Most of the species attacking apples are common and widely 
distributed over the United States and Canada. 

The apple flea-beetles (Haltica foliacea Leconte ; and Haltica 

punctipennis Leconte) 

These two bright, shining green flea-beetles are about \ of 
an inch in length and distinguished from each other with diffi- 
culty. The first species lives mostly in the southwest, from 
Texas to Arizona, while punctipennis usually has more dis- 
tinctly punctuated wing-covers and is common from Missouri 
westward to California. Most of the injuries to apple trees, 
although recorded as the work of foliacea, are now considered 
to have been done by punctipennis. Injury to young apple 
trees by these two species has been reported mostly from 
Kansas, Colorado and New Mexico. They are the only species 
of these flea-beetles attacking apple which are known to breed 
upon the apple, their blackish grubs sometimes skeletonizing 
the leaves in July. There is apparently but one generation 
annually, the beetles hibernating. 

The pale-striped flea-beetle (Systena tceniata Say) 

This flea-beetle, about | of an inch long, varies in color from 
almost black to a pale brownish, and it has a whitish longitudinal 
stripe extending down the middle of each wing-cover. Its 
grubs are root-feeders on weeds and corn, but the beetles are 
very general feeders. The terminal buds, and later the leaves, 
on apple and pear grafts have been destroyed by the beetles in 
Arkansas, and 20,000 seedling apples were stripped in seven 
days and killed in New York in June, 1900. 

The smartweed flea-beetle (Systena hudsonias Forster) 

This totally black flea-beetle, about ^ of an inch long, gener- 
ally feeds on smartweed, dock and other weeds, and little is 



APPLE INSECTS — BOREBS AND MISCELLANEOUS 205 

known of its life history. In June and July, 1897, it swarmed 
on to apple and pear grafts and 2-year-old trees in a New York 
nursery, and fed voraciously on the upper and lower surfaces of 
the leaves, riddling them and killing many of the grafts. 

The willow flea-beetle (Crepidodera helxines Linnaeus) 

This tiny, European flea-beetle, only ^ of an inch in length, 
is smooth, and varies from a brownish bronze to a metallic blue 
or green color. It is often found on willows eating small, round 
holes in the leaves, and the beetles hibernate, appearing in 
May and June. They once riddled the foliage of young apple 
trees in an Illinois nursery in June. The cucumber flea-beetle 
(Epitrix cucumeris Harris) was also detected at the same 
work in Illinois early in May. It is about J smaller than the 
willow species, of a shining black color, somewhat hairy, and 
is a common pest in gardens on potatoes, cucumbers and other 
vines. Its grubs sometimes cause " pimply" potatoes. 

Another Chrysomelid beetle (Syneta albida Leconte), although 
not of the group known as Flea-beetles, attacked apple, cherry 
and peach trees in a similar manner in Oregon in 1892. The 
slender, yellowish-brown (the females are yellowish-white) 
beetles, about \ of an inch in length, riddled the foliage and 
blossoms in April, sometimes cutting half through the stems 
of the young fruits. A sudden jar of the infested trees caused 
many of them to drop, so they could be readily collected on 
sheets or curculio-catchers, or a thorough application of a poison 
spray would kill them. 

The red-legged flea-beetle {Crepidodera ruflpes Linnaeus) 

This little flea-beetle, about ^ of an inch long, with shiny, 
blue wing-covers and reddish-brown head, antennae, thorax 
and legs, is common in Europe and widely distributed in the 
United States, where its favorite food seems to be black locust 



206 FRUIT INSECTS 

foliage. Young apple, pear, peach and plum orchards set near 
or on locust clearings have been seriously injured in early 
spring by the beetles swarming on to the trees and eating out 
the buds, sometimes denuding and killing the trees. It is sus- 
pected that the insect breeds on locust roots, but its life history 
is unknown, except that the beetles hibernate in rubbish on 
the ground. Thorough and frequent spraying of the opening 
buds with arsenate of lead (6 or 8 pounds in 100 gallons) will 
check the ravages of the beetles, which may also be jarred from 
the trees on to sheets or plum curculio-catchers. Kerosene 
emulsion diluted with 6 or 8 parts water is said to kill all that 
are thoroughly hit. 

Remedies for flea-beetles. 

Experiments have shown that these flea-beetles can be effect- 
ually controlled and many of them killed by one or two thorough 
applications of a strong poison spray, as Paris green, 1 pound 
in 100 gallons of water, or arsenate of lead, 4 or 5 pounds in 
100 gallons of water. Bordeaux mixture alone often protects 
the foliage from their attacks, and, combined with a poison, will 
make a very effective spray. Apply as soon as the beetles 
appear and make a second application a few days later, if 
necessary. 

The Clover-mite 

Bryobia pratensis Garman 

This is a minute, spider-like, oval-shaped, reddish-brown 
mite about T f q- of an inch in length and with remarkably long 
front legs (Fig. 192). Although it is closely related to the 
common, two-spotted mite or so-called " red-spider" of green- 
houses, it lives mostly out-of-doors on trees, clover and grasses. 
Throughout Canada and the northern half of the United States, 
especially during dry seasons, this clover -mite often swarms 
over the foliage of peach, prune, plum, apple, pear, cherry, 



APPLE INSECTS — BORERS AND MISCELLANEOUS 207 



almond, raspberry and other fruits, and many forest trees 
also. It is one of the principal enemies of fruit-trees in the 
far western orchard sections. These 
mites have mouth parts fitted for pierc- 
ing the tissues, and badly infested foli- 
age assumes a blanched, yellowish, sickly 

appearance. 

In warmer locali- 
ties many of the 
mites hibernate on 
the bark or in other 
sheltered locations, 
but in northern re- 
gions the winter is 
passed in the egg 
stage. Oftentimes 
the bark of fruit- 
trees, especially in 
the crotches, is 
covered in winter by 

thousands of the tiny, round, reddish eggs 
(Fig. 193). The conspicuous, rusty, reddish 
appearance given to the bark by the masses 
of mite eggs often first leads to the dis- 
covery of the pest. The eggs hatch early 
in the spring and breeding continues through 
several generations during the growing sea- 
son. In autumn housewives are often much 
annoyed by swarms of the mites coming 
from near-by clover fields and seeking hi- 
bernation quarters in the house. 





Fig. 192. — The clover- 
mite. Redrawn after M. 
A. Palmer ( x 37) . 



Fig. 193. — Eggs of 
the clover-mite on a 
twig. 



Reference 
U. S. Bur. Ent. Circ. 158. 1912. 



208 FRUIT INSECTS 

The two-spotted mite {Tetranychus bimaculatus Harvey) 

This is the common " red -spider " of greenhouses and the mite 
often discussed as Tetranychus telarius. Under this latter 
name there are many reports of injury to fruit-trees by "red- 
spiders," but in most cases it is evident that the real culprit 
was the clover-mite. The two-spotted mite is smaller, about 
sV of an inch long, and the legs are more nearly of equal length. 
The body and legs bear many stout hairs; it varies in color 
from yellow through orange to brown and dark green, often 
with a darker spot on each side of the body. It spins a very 
delicate silken web-like nest over its breeding grounds. Its 
eggs are elongate and white, and it is said to hibernate among 
fallen leaves and not as eggs on the bark. Thus while these 
two mites work in a similar manner on the foliage, they differ 
considerably in appearance and life-habits. (See also p. 315.) 

Remedial treatment for these mites. 

The clover-mite can be most effectively and easily con- 
trolled by thoroughly spraying the hibernating eggs in fall, 
winter or early spring with lime-sulfur at the strength usually 
used against scale, or a 10 per cent kerosene emulsion. The 
mites can be killed on the foliage with whale-oil soap solution 
(1 pound in 10 gallons water) or by dusting with sulfur and 
hydrated lime. 

References 

Vt. Agr. Exp. Sta. 10th Ann. Rept. pp. 75-86. 1897. 
Col. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 152. 1909. 

The Ring-legged Tree-bug 

Brochymena annulata Fabricius 

This large, widely distributed, dull grayish-brown Pentato- 
mid bug about f of an inch long often occurs in young apple 
orchards and has been accused of killing the tender, young 



APPLE INSECTS — BOREBS AND MISCELLANEOUS 209 

shoots by sucking out the sap in May. It is also reported as 
common on plum, cherry and larch trees and grape vines. 
The eggs and nymphs have been found on pea vines and willow 
trees and the old bugs in hibernation under bark. Another 
species, Brochymena 4:-pustulata, in both nymphal and adult 
stages, is recorded as sucking the juices from the pupae of the 
white-marked tussock-moth in Delaware, so that this ring-legged 
tree-bug may also include injurious insects as a portion of its 
diet, thus offsetting some of the injury it may do to plants. 

The adult bugs can be jarred or hand-picked from the trees 
on to sheets, or the nymphs killed by spraying with kerosene 
emulsion, whenever the insects become injurious in orchards 
or vineyards. 

The Eye-spotted Apple-twig Borer 

Oberea ocellata Haldeman 

The new growth or twigs of young apple trees are sometimes 
infested with a bright-yellow, deeply incised, legless grub about 
half an inch long when mature and bearing a characteristic 
shield-shaped, horny, roughened brownish plate arising ob- 
liquely from the head and covering the dorsum of the first tho- 
racic segment. These grubs devour the pith and also the woody 
fiber of the twigs, ejecting their castings through pin-like holes 
cut in the bark at irregular intervals. There is apparently 
one generation of the insect in a year, the grubs maturing in 
the fall and hibernating in their burrows, where they quickly 
transform through the pupa stage to the adult insect in April 
and May. The slender Cerambycid beetles, measuring about 
an eighth of an inch in length, are of a pale, reddish-brown color 
with their long antennas, wing-covers and feet very dark brown 
or blackish. Two and sometimes four conspicuous black spots 
occur on the dorsum of the thorax. Besides apple twigs, the 
insect also breeds in the twigs of peach, plum, pear and poison 



210 FRUIT INSECTS 

sumac. Although quite widely distributed in the United States 
and occurring also in Canada, this twig-borer seems to have 
been injurious only in Missouri and Texas. The only practi- 
cable remedy thus far suggested is to prune off and burn all 
infested twigs at any time before April. 

The New Yokk Weevil 

Ithycerus noveboracencis Forster 

This large, ash-gray, black-spotted beetle (Fig. 194), one 
of the largest of the weevils, measuring about f of an inch in 




Fig. 194. — The New York weevil (X 3f). 

length, is widely distributed in the United States and Canada, 
but has been injurious principally in the Mississippi Valley 
and the Southern states. It breeds in the twigs of oak, hickory 
and possibly other forest trees. The weevils appear in early 
spring and eat into the buds, gnaw the tender bark on new 
growth, and often cut off the leaf-stalks and new shoots, work- 
ing principally at night. Young apple, peach, plum, pear 
and cherry orchards and nursery trees may be invaded by the 
beetles and many trees ruined. 

These large weevils can be readily controlled either by hand- 
picking or by jarring them on to sheets or plum curculio-catchers. 



APPLE INSECTS — BORERS AND MISCELLANEOUS 211 

The Snowy Tree-cricket 
(Ecanthus niveus De Geer 

Apple and plum trees, especially if growing in orchards 
overgrown with weeds and other rank vegetation, are liable to 
be injured to a slight extent by the egg punctures of this pale 
yellowish- white tree-cricket. This species (niveus) was for- 




Fig. 195. — A pair of snowy tree-crickets courting, the male with wings expanded. 

merly supposed to deposit its eggs in rows of punctures in rasp- 
berry canes, but recent work at the Geneva Experiment Station 
has shown that another species (nigricornis) is the real cause 
of the injury to raspberry and that niveus deposits its eggs 
singly in punctures in the bark of the smaller branches of apple, 
peach, plum and other trees (see p. 325). The egg-punctures 
often permit the entrance of fungous spores and bacteria which 
cause the surrounding bark to become diseased, and produce 
discolored areas of dead bark known as cankers, or woolly 
aphids may start a colony at the wound and cause a bad scar on 



212 



FRUIT INSECTS 



the branch. Figure 196 shows an egg of the snowy tree-cricket 
in position in a small apple branch. The egg is laid in late 

summer or autumn and hatches the 
next May or June. The adults of 
this and closely allied species some- 
times injure ripe plums, grapes and 
peaches by eating out holes about 
the size of the insect's head. The 
injury is often attributed to bees, 
but the latter only collect the juice 
from the wound made by the tree- 
cricket. 

The injury from tree-cricket 
punctures is rarely found in or- 
chards kept free from rank vegeta- 
tion. Where cankers have started 
to form they should be cleaned out 
with a sharp knife, cutting back 
Fig. 196. — Section of an apple to the live bark, and the wound 

branch showing egg of snowy tree- h M th fe treated with a COat 
cricket in position. Greatly en- 
larged, of gas tar to prevent infection. 




Reference 
Parrott, Jour. Ec. Ent. II, pp. 124-127. 1909. 

Other Apple Insects 



Pear-leaf blister-mite : pear, p. 227. 
Pear blight beetle : pear, p. 232. 
Howard scale : pear, p. 234. 
European pear scale : pear, p. 234. 
Plum curculio : plum, p. 243. 
American plum borer, p. 253. 
European fruit-tree scale : plum, p. 260. 
European fruit lecanium: plum, p. 261. 
Fruit-tree bark-beetle : peach, p. 277. 



APPLE INSECTS — BOBEBS AND MISCELLANEOUS 213 

Tekrapin scale : peach, p. 293. 

Cherry scale : cherry, p. 312. 

Walnut scale : currant, p. 360. 

Imbricated snout-beetle : strawberry, p. 371. 

Rose chafer : grape, p. 397. 

Cottony maple scale : grape, p. 427. 



CHAPTER VI 
PEAR AND QUINCE INSECTS 

The most injurious insects attacking the pear are the codlin- 
moth (p. 10), San Jose scale (p. 162), the pear psylla and 
in some regions the pear thrips. While more distinctly an 
apple tree pest, the codlin-moth annually causes a loss of 
nearly a million dollars to the pear crop. 

Owing to the fact that the calyx lobes of the pear remain 
open and do not close up as in the apple, spraying for the codlin- 
moth is less effective on pears than on apple. Insects often 
cause serious injury to pears indirectly by distributing the spores 
of the bacterium, causing the disease known as fire-blight. 
Their legs and mouth parts become smeared with the sticky 
liquid containing the spores, which are thus introduced into the 
tissues of the plant by the claws in walking over the tender tips 
or by the beak when feeding. 

The Pear Slug 

Eriocampoides limacina Retzius 

For nearly two centuries this insect has been recognized as 
an enemy of the pear and cherry in Europe, while in this 
country its history goes back to the extensive account published 
in 1799 by William D. Peck of Massachusetts. It was probably 
introduced into New England in colonial times and is now 
generally distributed wherever its food-plants are grown. While 
in Europe it has been reported as feeding on a large number of 

214 



PEAR AND QUINCE INSECTS 



215 




plants, in this country its 
injuries are confined almost 
entirely to the pear, cherry 
and plum. Eggs are fre- 
quently laid in peach leaves 
on trees adjoining infested 
pear and cherry orchards, 
but the larvae do not seem 
to thrive on that food 
plant. 

In the North the small, 
glossy black, four-winged 
flies about J inch in length 
appear on the leaves about 
the middle of May. The 
female is provided with a 
sharp saw-edged ovipositor 

Fig. 197. — Egg-blisters of the pear slug. ^V means of which she de- 
posits her eggs under the epidermis of the leaf. The oviposi- 
tor is inserted from the under surface of the leaf and then so 
manipulated as to cut loose a portion of the upper epidermis, 
forming a kind of blister in 
which the oval egg is laid 
(Figs. 197 and 198). The 
egg hatches in about two 
weeks and the whitish young 
larva escapes on the upper 
side of the leaf through a 
semicircular cut in the over- 
lying epidermis. The larvae 
soon become covered with a 
brownish sticky slime, which 
is retained until they are full r „ , nc ^ , ,. , , .. „ ,„„ 

J Fig. 198. — Egg-blister of the pear slug, 

grown and gives them the greatly enlarged. 




216 



FRUIT INSECTS 



appearance of small snails. The body is swollen in front and 
tapers behind like a tadpole (Figs. 199 and 200). The larva 




Fig. 199. — Pear slugs feeding on a leaf. 

passes through five stages ; at the fourth molt it loses its slimy 
covering and in the fifth stage is of a light orange yellow color. 

It does not feed in 
this stage, but crawls 
or falls to the ground 
in which, at a depth 
of two or three inches, 
it constructs its 
earthen cocoon. 
Most of the larvae 
transform to pupae 
in six to eight days 
and the adults emerge 
W%msmlXmmMm®MBMm§ , . w^.„. \ — , about ten days later 

Fig. 200. — Pear slugs feeding, enlarged. and lav egffS for a 

second generation, but a few of the first brood larvae re- 
main unchanged in their cocoons until the following spring. 




PEAR AND QUINCE INSECTS 217 

In New York the eggs for the second brood are laid during late 
July and early August. Normally there are two broods in the 
North, but three have been reported in the latitude of Wash- 
ington, D.C. 

The larvae feed on the upper surface of the leaves eating only 
the epidermis and leaving the skeleton of veins and the lower 
epidermis to turn brown and wither up. Badly injured leaves 
fall and the tree may be entirely defoliated by midsummer; 
the fruit becomes stunted, fails to mature, and the vitality of 
the tree is so weakened that fruit buds for the next year's crop 
are not formed. . Sometimes the tree will put out a new crop 
of leaves, but these in turn may be destroyed by the second 
brood of slugs. In cases of such severe infestation the orchard 
has the appearance of having been swept by fire. Fortunately 
this pest is rarely troublesome for a series of years in the same 
locality, probably being held in check by a minute egg parasite. 

Treatment. 

When only a few trees are to be treated the slugs may be 
destroyed by one or two applications of freshly slaked lime 
dusted on the leaves. White hellebore, one ounce to three 
gallons of water, has also given good results. For commercial 
orchards arsenical sprays are more satisfactory. Arsenate of 
lead because of its greater safety and effectiveness is prefer- 
able to the older arsenicals, Paris green and London purple, and 
should be used at the rate of 4 pounds to 100 gallons of water. 
The slugs can also be killed by spraying with " Black Leaf 
40" tobacco extract, 1 pint in 100 gallons of water, adding 
4 or 5 pounds of soap to make the liquid stick and spread 
better. 

References 

Nev. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 10. 1890. 

U. S. Bur. Ent. Circ. 26. 1897. 

Col. Agr. Exp. Sta. 15th Rept. pp. 11-13. 1903. " 

Wash. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 65, pp. 12-14. 1904. 



218 



FRUIT INSECTS 



The Pear Psylla 

Psylla pyricola Forster 

This serious enemy of the pear was introduced into Connecti- 
cut from Europe about 1832. It is now generally distributed 
over the Eastern states and Canada, extending southward to 
Virginia; it also occurs in California. Locally the abundance 

of the pest varies greatly from year to 
year ; severe outbreaks lasting over two 
or three years are usually followed by 
longer periods of comparative immunity. 
Badly infested trees take on a sickly 
appearance early in the season, the leaves 
turn brownish or black, dry up and fall 
in midsummer ; the fruit remains small 
and much of it falls prematurely. Some 
orchards give the impression of having 
been swept by fire, and owing to their 
weakened condition are especially liable 
to winter killing. 

The adults hibernate on the trunks 
in crevices and under flakes of bark, and 
when very abundant they may collect 
Fig. 201.— The pear psylla, unc [ er leaves and trash on the ground. 

adult ( X 20) . ° 

The adult psylla has been aptly likened 
to a diminutive cicada or dog-day harvest-fly (Fig. 201) ; 
they are about -^ inch in length, dark reddish-brown in color, 
with the abdomen banded with black. When at rest the two 
pairs of large, nearly transparent wings slope roof -like over 
the sides of the body. 

With the first warm days of spring the adults emerge from 
their winter quarters and egg-laying begins in a few days. 
The yellowish-orange eggs, about g 1 ^ inch in length are deposited 




PEAR AND QUINCE INSECTS 



219 



in the creases of the bark, in old leaf scars and about the base 
of the terminal buds. They are elongate pyriform in shape 
and have a smooth shining surface. A short stalk at the larger 
end attaches the egg to the bark and a long thread-like process 
projects from the smaller end. A large proportion of the eggs 
is laid before the buds open. They hatch in 11 to 30 days, 
depending on the temperature. 

Most of the eggs have hatched by the time the petals fall. 
The recently hatched nymphs are of a translucent yellow color 
and are hardly visible to the unaided 
eye, being scarcely -^ inch in length. 
They migrate at once to the axils of the 
leaf petioles and stems of the forming 
fruit, and when these places become 
crowded they will scatter out on the 
underside of the leaves and on the 
petioles. They are provided with suck- 
ing mouth parts and feed exclusively on 
the sap. The larger part of the sap 
taken into the body is elaborated into 
a sweet, sticky substance known as 
honey-dew, which is voided from the tip of the abdomen 
and collects as a large glistening drop. The leaves and 
fruit on infested trees are always more or less covered with 
this unpleasant secretion and soon acquire a disgusting blackish 
appearance from a sooty fungus which grows upon it. The 
presence of the honey-dew is frequently the first indication that 
the tree is infested. 

The psylla passes through five immature stages and acquires 
wings at the fifth molt (Fig. 202). About a month is required 
for the complete life-cycle, and there are at least four broods a 
season. The females of the later generations do not lay their 
eggs on the bark, but deposit them along the midrib on the under- 
side of the leaves or place them in the notches at the edge of 




Fig. 202. — The pear psylla, 
last stage nymph. Enlarged. 



220 FRUIT INSECTS 

the leaf. The adults of the summer generations differ from 
the hibernating forms in being J smaller, in their brighter color- 
ing and in the markings of the front wings. The two forms are 
so unlike that they were formerly considered as distinct species. 

Methods of control. 

Pear orchards subject to attack should be kept clean of trash 
under which the hibernating psyllas might find shelter. Dur- 
ing the fall or winter the rough bark should be scraped from 
the trunks and larger branches to render them less attractive 
as hibernating quarters, and to make it easier to reach the insects 
by spraying during the dormant season. The scraping can be 
done with a dull hoe, taking care not to injure the living wood. 
This work can be done to best advantage during damp weather, 
when the rough bark comes off the easiest. When the psyllas 
are abundant great numbers are scraped off with the bark ; 
in such case it might pay to collect and burn the scrapings. 
During warm days in November and December, or in March 
and early April, many of the hibernating adults crawl from their 
hiding places in crevices of the bark. At such times they are 
sluggish in their movements and do not readily take flight. 
A large proportion of them can be destroyed by a thorough 
spraying of the trees with " Black Leaf 40 " tobacco extract, 
1 pint in 100 gallons of water, adding three to five pounds of 
soap. The application should be made on days when there is 
no danger of the liquid freezing on the trees. It is important 
to spray both sides of a tree before proceeding to the next be- 
cause the flies often dodge to the opposite side of a branch, 
and thus escape being hit by the spray. Effective work against 
the hibernating flies can also be done by using kerosene emul- 
sion diluted with 10 parts of water, miscible oil diluted wrih 
12 or 15 parts of water, or whale-oil soap 1 pound in 4 to 6 
gallons of water. These mixtures are, on the whole, not so 
satisfactory as the tobacco extract from the standpoint of safety 
and efficiency. 



PEAR AN?) QUINCE INSECTS 221 

Many of the eggs and newly hatched nymphs can be destroyed 
by spraying with lime-sulfur at the strength used for scale, 
making the application when the blossom cluster-buds are 
beginning to separate at the tips. 

By the time the petals have fallen, nearly all of the eggs have 
hatched and the young nymphs are clustered at the base of the 
leaf petioles and the fruit stems, where they may be easily 
killed by thorough spraying with kerosene emulsion, diluted 
with 10 parts of water, whale-oil soap, 1 pound in 4 to 6 gallons 
of water, or " Black Leaf 40 " tobacco extract, f pint in 100 
gallons of water, adding 3 to 5 pounds of soap. As the nymphs 
grow older they become more difficult to kill and the expanding 
foliage, gives them more protection from the spray. To get 
the best results the first application should be made just after 
the petals fall and should be repeated in three or four days. 
By thoroughly killing off the first brood at this time complete 
protection of the crop for the entire season can be obtained. 
It has never been found practicable to kill the summer adults ; 
they are very active and take flight at the slightest alarm. 

References 

Cornell Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 44. 1892. , 

Cornell Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 108, pp. 69-81. 1896. 
N.'Y. (Geneva) Agr. Exp. Sta. Circ. 20. 1913. 



False Tarnished Plant-bug 

Lygus invitus Say 

This close relative of the tarnished plant-bug has for many 
years caused considerable loss to the pear growers of western 
New York. In certain orchards half of the crop has been ren- 
dered unsalable by the punctures of this obscure insect. Pears 
that have been injured in this way are knotty, deformed and 
gritty in texture (Fig. 203). 



222 



FRUIT INSECTS 



The adult is about J inch in length and light brownish in 
color. The winter is passed in the egg stage. The eggs are 
doubtless inserted in the bark of the smaller branches; they 
hatch during the blossoming period. The pale-colored nymphs 
at first feed on the tender opening leaves, but attack the fruit 
as soon as it sets. After the first molt they take on a greenish 
color, which makes them very inconspicuous as they rest 
on the leaves or young fruits. They pass through five im- 
mature stages, becoming mature 
about the middle of June. Most of 
the injury is done towards the last 
of May while the fruits are still quite 
small. A single nymph may visit 
many pears, puncturing each one 
several times. The tissue surround- 
ing the puncture hardens, becomes 
gritty, and the growth of the fruit 
at that point is retarded, causing a 
depression in the surface. The loca- 
tion of the puncture is usually in- 
dicated by a break in the skin, from 
which protrudes a small yellowish granular mass. Badly 
punctured fruits are often considerably undersized. 

Control. — The newly hatched nymphs are tender, delicate 
creatures and may be easily killed by a thorough application 
of " Black Leaf 40 " tobacco extract, f pint in 100 gallons of 
water, adding three or four pounds of soap to make the liquid 
stick and spread better. This application should be made 
about the time the petals are falling. In some cases it may be 
necessary to repeat the treatment a few days later. 




Fig. 203. — Mature pear 
showing the result of injury 
by the false tarnished plant- 
bug. 



Reference 
N. Y. (Geneva) Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 368. 1913. 



PEAB AND QUINCE INSECTS 223 

The Pear Thrips 

Euthrips pyri Daniel 

In the San Francisco Bay region of California, since 1904, 
pears, prunes, apricots, peaches and almonds have suffered 
greatly from the attacks of this minute, fringe-winged insect. 
More recently this pest has appeared in injurious numbers both 
in New York state and in England. The dark brown adults, only 
about 2V mcn m length, emerge from the ground and attack 
the bursting buds of the fruit trees in late February and early 
March in California. They work their way into the opening 
buds and feed on the tenderest parts of the unopened leaves 
and blossoms. In feeding they pierce and rasp away the epider- 
mis with their mouth parts and then suck out the sap. The 
female inserts her minute, whitish, bean-shaped eggs principally 
in the stems of the young fruit and leaves. The eggs hatch 
in about four days. The young nymphs are white with red 
eyes, closely resembling the adults in form, except for the lack 
of wings, and have similar feeding habits. They attain their 
growth in two or three weeks and fall to the ground, where, at 
a depth of several inches, they form a small earthen cell within 
which they hibernate. Most of the cells are found in the first 
3 or 4 inches of firm soil ; none are made in the loose surface 
layer. During the winter months the nymphs change to adults 
within the cells, but the latter do not emerge till the last of 
February in California. 

The injury is greater on those fruits which, like the pear 
and prune, bear the blossoms in clusters all developed from 
one bud, than on the peach and apricot, where only one blossom 
comes from a single bud, because in the former case the thrips 
have more chance to work before the fruit sets. Pears and prunes 
suffer most severely. When abundant a large number of thrips 
will enter a single bud, stunt the leaves, blast the blossoms and 
prevent the setting of the fruit. On pears most of the injury 



224 FRUIT INSECTS 

is done in the bud itself; on prunes and peaches the nymphs 
feed on the skin of the young fruits beneath the drying calices, 
causing scabby or silvered areas. On both prunes and cherries 
much injury is caused by the egg-laying punctures in the fruit 
stems ; the fruits turn yellow and drop. On all fruits the injury 
to the foliage through a number of successive years tends to 
weaken the trees and render them subject to disease. 

Remedial measures. 

The pear thrips may be satisfactorily controlled by proper 
cultivation and spraying. During October, November and 
December the ground should be plowed to a depth of 7 to 10 
inches, harrowed, cross-plowed and again harrowed. This is 
intended to break open the cells and kill the tender last stage 
nymphs. This method has given good results in California 
prune orchards, but is less efficient in pear orchards. 

Two sprayings should be made, the first just as the first buds 
begin to open and the second just after the petals fall, using f 
pint " Black Leaf 40" tobacco extract in 100 gallons of water, 
adding 5 pounds of soap. In the first spraying the object 
is to force the liquid into the opening buds where it will kill the 
thrips by contact. To do this it is necessary to use high pres- 
sure, at least 150 pounds, and a rather coarse nozzle, spraying 
down directly into the bud tips. In cases of severe infestation 
it is sometimes advisable to make an additional application 
directly after the first. Experiments in California have shown 
that the thrips can be satisfactorily controlled by thoroughly 
spraying the trees with a thick whitewash just as the buds 
are opening. The whitewash is made by slaking 80 pounds 
of quicklime for each 100 gallons of the wash. It should be 

strained before using. 

References 

U. S. Bur. Ent. Bull. 68, Pt. I. 1909. 

U. S. Bur. Ent. Bull. 80, Pt. IV. 1909. 

N. Y. (Geneva) Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 343. 1912. 

Cal. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 228. 1912. 



PEAR AND QUINCE INSECTS 



225 



The Pear Midge 



Contarinia pyrivora Riley 

This European enemy of the pear was introduced into Con- 
necticut about 1877 and has spread into New York and New 

Jersey. It attacks all varieties of 
pears, but has a decided preference 
for the Lawrence. Its spread has 
been rather slow and it has not 
become as serious a check to the 
pear industry as was anticipated. 
The adult insect is a small 
midge, about T V inch in length, 
closely resembling a mosquito. 
They appear about the time the 
blossoms begin to show color, and 
the female deposits, by means of 
her long flexible ovipositor, a mass 
of 12 to 45 minute, yellowish- 
white, elongate eggs in the in- 
terior of the unopened blossom. 
The eggs hatch in 4 days or more, 
depending on the temperature; 
Fig. 204.— A young pear cut open and the minute, whitish larvae 

to show larvae of the pear midge. k their way down ^to the 

Enlarged. . J 

ovary, destroy the core and 
hollow out a large irregular cavity, which frequently occupies 
nearly the whole interior of the young fruit (Fig. 204). 
Infested fruits at first become abnormally enlarged and later 
stunted and deformed. The larvae become full grown early 
in June and escape from the fruit usually through cracks 
which occur after heavy rains (Fig. 205). In dry seasons 
the fruit may fall before cracking open ; in such cases the 

Q 





226 FRUIT INSECTS 

larvae bore their way out through decayed spots. They 
burrow into the soil an inch or two, and after a variable time 
spin delicate cocoons within which the insect hibernates. 
Most of the larvae spin cocoons within a month after entering 
the ground, but some are found naked as late as October. As a 
general thing the winter is passed in the pupal stage, but some- 
times a large percentage of the larvae may not pupate until 
spring, about two weeks before the flies emerge. When about 

to transform the pupa 
leaves the cocoon and 
works itself to the sur- 
face of the ground, 
where the fly is set 
free. There is only one 
generation a year, al- 
though it has been ob- 

Fig. 205 - - Young pears infested by the pear serve d in France that 
midge, cracked open to permit the escape of the 

larvse. some oi the first larvae 

to pupate transform to 
flies during July of the same year. As there are no pear 
blossoms available at that time and as they have no other 
food-plant, these precocious individuals necessarily perish. 

Remedial measures. 

So far no method of spraying has been devised to prevent 
the laying of the eggs or the development of the larvae in the 
fruit. The infested fruits are easily distinguished by their 
size and shape, and where only a few trees are affected it would 
pay to collect and burn them before the larvae have emerged, 
that is before May 15. In larger orchards this would be too 
expensive to be practicable. Experiments in New Jersey have 
shown the great value of kainit in destroying the larvae in the 
ground. It should be applied during the latter half of June, 
at the rate of 1000 to 2000 pounds to the acre. While it has 
been successfully used on the sandy soils of New Jersey, the 



PEAR AND QUINCE INSECTS 227 

experience of other growers indicate that such heavy applica- 
tions of kainit on clay soils is very liable to injure the trees. 
In such cases recourse must be had to repeated, thorough, 
shallow cultivation during June and July. By this means a 
large number of the larvae and pupae will be destroyed. 

References 

Riley, Rept. U. S. Com. Agr., pp. 283-289. 1885. 
N. J. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 99. 1894. 
Marchal, Ann. Soe. Ent. Fr., pp. 5-27. 1907. 



The Pear-leaf Blister-mite 

Eriophyes pyri Pagenstecher 

The leaves of pears and apples are often disfigured by reddish 
or greenish-yellow blisters which later in the season turn brown 
(Fig. 206). These blisters are caused by colonies of minute, 
whitish, elongate, four-legged mites, yj^ inch in length, living 
within the tissue of the leaf (Fig. 207). These creatures are 
not insects, but belong to the class of animals known as Arachnida, 
to which belong spiders and scorpions. While originally a 
native of Europe, it has now become widely distributed and 
occurs wherever the pear is cultivated. About 1902 it suddenly 
became an important apple pest in the Eastern states and 
Canada. The cause of this remarkable change of habit is 
unknown. 

The adult mites pass the winter snugly hidden away beneath 
the second or third bud scales. With the bursting of the buds 
they migrate to the tender leaves and burrow beneath the epi- 
dermis of the under surface. The irritation thus caused pro- 
duces a thickening of the leaf tissue and results in the formation 
of a blister-like gall. The minute, whitish eggs are deposited 
within the gall, and the young remain there until mature. They 
then leave the gall through a minute opening on the under side, 



228 



FRUIT INSECTS 



migrate to new leaves and there start new blisters. Repro- 
duction is continuous and new galls are formed throughout 
the growing season. 




Fig. 206. — Pear leaves infested with the pear-leaf blister-mite. 

On pear the blisters at first appear as small greenish pimples 
which soon take on a reddish color and later turn brownish. 

On apple the first 
stages are pale yel- 
lowish and the blisters 
never become as red 
as on pear. They are 
J inch or less in diam- 
eter, and when abun- 
dant coalesce, produc- 
ing large dead areas in 
the leaves. Badly infested leaves are liable to turn yellow and 
drop. The loss of foliage weakens the tree, interferes with 
the maturing of the fruit and the formation of fruit buds. 




Fig. 207. 



Pear-leaf blister-mite, greatly en- 
larged. 



PEAR AND QUINCE INSECTS 



229 



Pear trees in the nursery are sometimes badly stunted in 
this way. Sometimes the mites attack the very young 
fruits (Fig. 208) and fruit stems, causing small pimples, but the 
injury is usually outgrown and little or no loss results. 

Remedial treatment. 

The leaf blister-mite is not a difficult pest to control. Lime- 
sulfur, miscible oils and ^ 
homemade oil emulsions 
have all given excellent 
results ; but lime-sulfur 
has, on the whole ; proved 
most satisfactory and is 
now extensively used by 
commercial orchardists. 
The insecticide is in- 
tended to destroy the 
adults hibernating under 
the bud scales and can 
be applied either in the 
fall after the leaves have 

fallen or in the spring any time before the tips of the leaves 
begin to show. When used for blister mite alone the lime- 
sulfur may be applied somewhat weaker than for the San Jose 
scale ; a dilution of 1 to 10 when the concentrated solution 
tests 31° Beaume is sufficiently strong. As a rule it is not 
necessary to spray every year for the control of blister-mite ; 
one treatment usually so reduces the number of mites that 
they do not again become abundant enough to cause serious 
injury for several years. 

References 

■N. Y. (Geneva) Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 283. 1906. 
N. Y. (Geneva) Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 306. 1908. 




Fig. 



208. — Young fruits deformed by the 
blister-mite. 



230 



FRUIT INSECTS 



The Sinuate Pear Borer 

Agrilus sinuatus Olivier 

When this European enemy of the pear was first discovered 
in New Jersey, in 1894, it was greatly feared that it would become 
widely distributed and as seriously interfere with the pear in- 





Fig. 209. — The sinuate 
pear-borer beetle (x 7|). 



Fig. 210. — Pear branch infested with the 
sinuate borer. 



dustry in this country as it does in Germany and France. 
Fortunately such has not been the case. As far as known it is 
still confined to that state and New York. 

The slender, shining, bronze-brown beetles (Fig. 209) about 
J inch in length, emerge the last of May and during June. They 
are found on bright sunny days on the bark of the trunk and 
branches, where the female deposits her eggs in crevices and 
under flakes of bark. The eggs hatch in early July and the 
slender whitish grubs eat out narrow winding burrows in the 



PEAR AND QUINCE INSECTS 231 

sapwood. The partly grown larva rests in its burrow during 
the first winter and the next spring continues its destructive 
work. The burrows are now much larger and more winding; 
they frequently intersect, cut off the supply of sap and kill 
the branch or tree. The course of the burrows is now indi- 
cated exteriorly by the discolored and abnormal bark above 
them (Fig. 210). In smooth-barked trees these winding trails 
become very conspicuous. In September of the second year 
the larva, which is now about 1| inches in length, burrows 
into the solid wood and there at the depth of about J inch con- 
structs a pupal chamber which it connects with the bark by 
an exit hole. It then plugs both ends of the chamber with 
sawdust, becomes shorter and thicker, and the following April 
transforms to a pupa. The beetles emerge about a month 
later. 

Trees of all sizes from nursery stock up are subject to attack. 
Smaller trees are frequently completely girdled by the inter- 
secting burrows and killed outright. Larger trees are so weak- 
ened by the presence of the borers that they soon present a 
sickly appearance, lose their leaves and finally die. The 
Kieffer is less subject to injury than other varieties because of 
its greater vitality, whereby it is able to fill up the burrows with 
new tissue. 

Treatment. 

Infested nursery stock and all other trees too badly infested 
to be of value should be removed and burned. In many cases 
the pupal chamber can be located by a discolored area in the 
bark and the insect dug out with a knife. Attempts to keep the 
beetles from emerging by coating the bark with a viscid wash 
have not been successful, but it is probable that deterrent 
washes, as suggested for the Round-headed Apple Tree Borer, 
would be of some value in preventing oviposition. Several 
applications should be made during the last part of May and 
early June, taking care to cover the larger branches as well as 



232 FRUIT INSECTS 

the trunk. Trees that have been kept in strong, healthy condi- 
tion by proper care and the use of appropriate fertilizers are 
better able to withstand borer attack. As this pest is readily 
distributed in nursery stock, one should be careful in setting a 
new orchard to have all young trees carefully inspected. 

Reference 
N. J. Agr. Exp. Sta. 15th Ann. Rept. (1894), pp. 550-551. 1895. 

The pear borer (Sesia pyri Harris) occurs throughout the 
Eastern states and Canada, ranging southward to Florida and 
Texas. It is a near relative of the peach tree borer. The adult 
is a clear-winged moth with an expanse of f inch, bluish-black 
in color, and having the abdomen marked with three yellow 
bands ; in the female the anal tuft is also yellow. The larvae, 
which closely resemble those of the peach tree borer, burrow in 
or just below the bark on the trunk and larger branches of the 
pear and apple, but do not penetrate the sapwood as is usual 
in that species. It, therefore, rarely causes serious injury. 

Pear-blight Beetle 

Xyleborus dispar Fabricius , 

Sometimes in June the tips of pear and apple branches sud- 
denly die back as the result of the work of a small Scolytid 
beetle. The injury is often mistaken for the bacterial disease, 
pear blight, whence the common name. These beetles belong 
to that highly interesting group of wood borers known as 
ambrosia beetles from their habit of feeding, both as larvae and 
adults, on a peculiar fungus propagated in their burrows and 
known as ambrosia. They are also sometimes known as wood 
stainers from the fact that the growth of the fungus blackens 
the surrounding wood. 

This species occurs in Europe, Northern Asia, the northern 
United States and Canada ; it infests among other forest trees 



PEAR AND QUINCE INSECTS 233 

the hemlock, beech, birch, red oak, and among fruit trees the 
pear, plum and apple, preferring the latter. 

The female beetle is dark brown, about ^ inch in length, 
cylindrical and has the nearly globular head drawlf uhder the 
thorax so as to be invisible from above. The males are only 
a little more than half as long and have the back very convex 
longitudinally. On small branches the female usually starts 
her burrow just below a bud scar and, after passing through the 
sap wood tunnels around the pith, keeping in the hard wood, 
constructs a number of side burrows running lengthwise 
of the branch. In larger branches the galleries are straighter. 
The eggs are laid loosely in the burrows in June in Nova Scotia 
and in May in West Virginia, and the grubs feed on the fungus 
growing on the walls of the chamber. The larvae pupate in 
the galleries and the beetles escape through the entrance hole 
made by the parent beetle. 

Treatment. 

So far this beetle has been troublesome only in restricted 
localities and is not likely to become a serious pest. In Nova 
Scotia a wash made of 3 gallons of water, 1 gallon soft soap and 
J pint of carbolic acid has given good results when applied in 
June. In using this wash the aim is to have the liquid soak 
into the burrow, kill the food fungus and thus indirectly destroy 
the beetles. Two or three applications at intervals of a few 
days are advised. Badly infested trees or branches should be 
burned before the beetles have a chance to emerge. 

References 

Peck, Mass. Agr. Jour. IV, pp. 205-207. 1817. 

Hubbard, Bur. Ent. Bull. 7, pp. 9-30. 1897. General account of the 

ambrosia beetles. 
Fletcher, Rept. Ent. Bot. for 1904, pp. 240-241. 1905. 
Swaine, Rept. Ent. Soc. Ont. for 1909, pp. 58-63. 1910. 
Schneider-Orelli, Centlb. Bakt. Parasitenk. Infektk., 2 Abt., XXXVIII, 

pp. 25-110. 1913. Extensive account. 



234 FRUIT INSECTS 

The Howard Scale 
Aspidiotus howardi Cockerell 

This scale insect was first discovered in Colorado in 1894, 
and now ranks as a serious pest in pear, plum and prune or- 
chards in that state. It also attacks apple, peach, wild 
plum, white ash and maple trees ; and has been found in New 
Mexico. Besides infesting the bark, especially on the twigs, 
it often occurs on the fruit, causing a peculiar pitting of the 
surface on pears, and, like the San Jose scale, reddish discolora- 
tions of the skin around the scales. Trees are sometimes in- 
crusted and killed by this scale. It is closely allied to the San 
Jose, the Putnam's, the cherry and the European fruit scales, 
being distinguished with certainty by microscopic characters 
only. Mature female scales are circular, about the same size 
as the San Jose scale, but of a paler grayish color with the dull 
orange exuvial spot on one side of the center. In Colorado there 
are three and possibly four overlapping generations of this 
scale annually, the winter being passed in the partly grown 
condition. Males emerge early in April and six or eight weeks 
later crawling young appear. The species is apparently both 
oviparous and ovoviviparous, usually eggs, but sometimes only 
minute, living young, being found under the mother scales. 

This Howard scale spreads slowly and is attacked by a little 
parasite, Prospaltella aurantii, and the twice-stabbed lady-bird 
beetle as well as small spiders destroy many. The lime-sulfur 
wash applied late in spring before the buds open has been found 
to effectively control the insect in Colorado. 

The European Pear Scale 

Epidiaspis piricola Del Guercio 

This small, circular European scale insect has been sent to 
the United States several times on nursery stock, but seems to 



PEAR AND QUINCE INSECTS 235 

have established itself in injurious numbers only in California, 
although recorded also from several Eastern states. It has 
attacked pear and prune trees principally in this country, 
but the apple, plum, peach and currant are among its food- 
plants. Specimens we saw on pear seedlings from France 
were in little pits or depressions in the bark, and others state 
they occur under the edges of rough bark or moss. Appar- 
ently it spreads and breeds slowly, so it will doubtless never 
be a serious menace to American orchards. The winter appli- 
cations recommended for the San Jose scale will probably con- 
trol it if thoroughly applied. 

Other Pear Insects 

Codlin-moth : apple, p. 10. 

Green fruit-worms : apple, p. 39. 

Bud-moth : apple, p. 42. 

Cigar-case-bearer : apple, p. 47. 

Click-beetles : apple, p. 55. 

Fruit-tree leaf-roller : apple, p. 62. 

Oblique-banded leaf-roller : apple, p. 65. 

Leaf-crumpler : apple, p. 68. 

Unspotted tentiform leaf-miner : apple, p. 73. 

Serpentine leaf-miner : apple, p. 74. 

Resplendent shield-bearer : apple, p. 75. 

White-marked tussock-moth : apple, p. 100. 

Oriental moth : apple, p. 106. 

Fall webworm : apple, p. 107. 

Apple-tree tent-caterpillar: apple, p. 112. 

Forest tent-caterpillar : apple, p. 119. 

Yellow-necked apple caterpillar : apple, p. 123. 

Red-humped apple caterpillar : apple, p. 125. 

Climbing cutworms: apple, p. 138. 

Apple leaf-aphis : apple, p. 147. 

Rosy apple aphis : apple, p. 149. 

Apple bud-aphis : apple, p. 151. 

Woolly aphis : apple, p. 153. 

San Jose scale : apple, p. 162. 

Oyster-shell scale : apple, p. 171. 

Scurfy scale : apple, p. 176. 



236 FRUIT INSECTS 

Putnam's scale : apple, p. 179. 

Greedy scale : apple, p. 180. 

Round-headed apple-tree borer : apple, p. 185. 

Flat-headed apple-tree borer : apple, p. 194. 

Twig-pruner : apple, p. 200. 

Twig-girdler : apple, p. 202. 

Flea-beetles : apple, p. 203. 

Clover mite : apple, p. 206. 

Eye-spotted apple-twig borer : apple, p. 209. 

New York weevil : apple, p. 210. 

Plum curculio : plum, p. 243. 

American plum borer : plum, p. 253. 

European fruit-tree scale : plum, p. 260. 

European fruit lecanium : plum, p. 261. 

Cherry scale : cherry, p. 312. 

Walnut scale : currant, p. 360. 

Rose chafer : grape, p. 297. 

Grape-cane borer : grape, p. 423. 

Cottony maple scale : grape, p. 427. 

Imbricated snout-beetle : strawberry, p. 371. 

Tarnished plant-bug : strawberry, p. 375. 



QUINCE INSECTS 

Nearly all the insects attacking the quince have been dis- 
cussed under the apple. One of these, the round-headed apple- 
tree borer, is even more destructive to the quince than to the 
apple. The only insect which is distinctly a quince pest is the 
quince curculio treated below. 

The Quince Curculio 

Conotrachelus cratcegi Walsh 

This is by all odds the most destructive insect with which the 
quince grower has to contend. In unprotected orchards of 
western New York often over 90 per cent of the crop is either 
infested by the grubs or rendered gnarled and knotty by the 
punctures of the beetles (Fig. 218). 



PEAR AND QUINCE INSECTS 



237 





Fig. 211. — The quince cur- 
culio, side view. 



Fig. 212. — The quince cur- 
culio, dorsal view ( X 3) . 



The quince curculio is a brownish-gray, broad-shouldered 
snout beetle, about J inch in length (Figs. 211 and 212) ; the 
wing cases are strongly ribbed lengthwise by sharp ridges, and 
there are two rows of 
deep punctures in each 
interval ; there are no 
humps as in the case 
of the plum and apple 
curculios. The time of 
the first appearance of 
the weevils on the trees 
varies greatly with the 
season. In 1896 they 
appeared during the last 
week in May, while in 
1897 they did not begin 
work until about two 
months later or the last 
of July. 

In feeding the beetle 
cuts a small opening in 
the skin of the fruit 
with the jaws at the tip of the snout and then eats out a 
cavity in the pulp (Fig. 213). The small opening to the cavity 




Fig. 213. — Young quince, showing the manner 
of feeding of the curculios. 



238 



FRUIT INSECTS 



is not readily seen, as it is usually hidden by the thick fuzzy 
coating of the fruit. These early punctures are the cause of most 




Fig. 214. — Section through the Fig. 215. 
egg-pit, showing the egg in position, 
much enlarged. 



Larva of the quince curculio, 
enlarged. 



of the knotty and deformed fruits. The cavity becomes filled 
with hardened, gritty tissue, growth is stopped at that point, 
and the scar of the puncture comes to occupy the bottom of 

a deep depression in the surface of the 
fruit. 

The female deposits her minute, whitish, 
oval eggs singly in cavities (Fig. 214) in- 
distinguishable from those excavated for food 
only. The eggs hatch in from seven to ten 
days, and the grub burrows through the 
flesh, seldom reaching the core. Only a small 
proportion of the infested quinces fall to the 
ground, and most of the grubs develop in 
fruit still hanging on the tree. In about 
30 days the full-grown, flesh-colored, footless, maggot-like 
grub (Fig. 215) leaves the fruit and burrows two or three 
inches into the soil. There it remains in the grub stage, in a 
small earthen cell until the next spring, when it trans- 




Fig. 216. — Pupa 
of the quince curculio 
(X4). 



PEAR AND QUINCE INSECTS 



239 



forms to the tender and helpless pupa (Fig. 216). From 
10 to 20 days are spent in this stage before the change to the 






\ 






Fig. 217. — A "wormy" quince cut open. 

beetle takes place. The beetle is at first white and soft and 
remains within the cell for 10 days or more before it is strong 
enough to work its ^ 

way to the surface. 
There is only one 
generation a year. 
In normal seasons 
egg-laying probably 
begins about the 
middle of July and 
continues for a con- 
siderable period. 
The number of eggs 
laid by one female 
has not been deter- Fig. 218. — a 
mined, but prob- 
ably exceeds a hundred. The grubs begin to emerge in August, 
but many are still in the fruit at picking time. 





knotty" quince, the result of cur- 
culio work. 



240 FBUIT INSECTS 

Treatment. 

The quince curculio is a difficult insect to control. It passes 
the winter as a grub in the soil, and therefore the destruction 
of hibernating quarters as advised for the plum and apple 
curculios would be of no avail. Clean cultivation has not given 
the expected results in the destruction of the grubs, because 
they are more active than those of the other species and are 
able to burrow back into the soil and reconstruct their cells 
after having been disturbed. Shallow repeated cultivation 
at the time the helpless pupae are in their cells would probably 
kill many, but enough escape to make the operation of doubtful 
value. The destruction of windfalls would reach only a small 
proportion of the grubs, since most of the infested quinces do 
not drop, but remain on the tree until after the grubs have be- 
come full-grown and emerged. Some commercial growers have 
had good success in reducing the amount of infestation by pick- 
ing off and destroying all infested fruit about a month before 
picking time thus leaving on the trees only first and second 
class quinces. 

Catching the beetles by jarring them on to sheets or curculio 
catchers is a rather expensive and laborious operation, but has 
been profitably practiced by extensive growers in western 
New York. The curculio catcher as used in New York is a 
large funnel-shaped frame covered with canvas and mounted 
on a two-wheeled wheelbarrow. In front is a narrow opening 
reaching to the center, designed to admit the trunk of the tree. 
The machine is placed in position, and the tree is jarred with a 
padded mallet having a long handle. The beetles feign death, 
fall on to the sheet and are caught in a box or can placed under 
the center of the funnel. From time to time the beetles are 
removed and killed. The trees should be gone over every da> 
or two while the beetles are present. To determine when they 
appear, jar a tree or two daily, beginning about the last of May. 
It is a more difficult matter to jar low-headed, wide-spreading 



PEAR AND QUINCE INSECTS 241 

quince trees than the more erect plum trees, and this method 
of control is now little used in commercial orchards. 

The beetles are hard to kill by spraying with an arsenical, 
because they eat but very little of the skin of the fruit in making 
their punctures and because of the dense fuzzy covering of the 
fruit on which the poison is deposited. The use of Paris green 
or London purple has not given satisfactory results, but there 
is considerable evidence to show that spraying with the more 
adhesive arsenate of lead is of considerable value in reducing 
the number of punctures. It should be used at the rate of 
5 or 6 pounds to 100 gallons of water or combined with the 
proper fungicide; Two applications should be made, the first 
when the beetles first appear and the second about a week 
later. 

Reference 

Cornell Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 148. 1898. 

Other Quince Insects 

Codlin-moth : apple, p. 10. 

Green fruit-worms : apple, p. 39. 

Bud-moth : apple, p. 42. 

Fruit-tree leaf-roller : apple, p. 62. 

Apple leaf-skeletonizer : apple, p. 67. 

Leaf-crumpler : apple, p. 68. 

Resplendent shield-bearer : apple, p. 75. 

White-marked tussock-moth : apple, p. 100. 

Yellow-necked apple caterpillar : apple, p. 123. 

Apple leaf-aphis : apple, p. 147. 

Apple bud-aphis: apple, p. 151. 

Woolly aphis : apple, p. 153. 

Buffalo tree-hopper : apple, p. 160. 

San Jose scale : apple, p. 162. 

Oyster-shell scale: apple, p. 171. 

Scurfy scale : apple, p. 176. 

Round-headed apple-tree borer : apple, p. 185. 

Flat-headed apple-tree borer : apple, p. 194. 

Twig-pruner : apple, p. 200. 

R 



242 fbuit in SECTS 

Twig-girdler : apple, p. 202. 
Flea-beetles : apple, p. 203. 
Plum curculio : plum, p. 243. 
European fruit lecanium : plum, p. 261. 
Cherry scale : cherry, p. 312. 
Fruit-tree bare-beetle : peach, p. 277. 
Cottony maple scale : grape, p. 427. 



CHAPTER VII 
PLUM INSECTS 

Plums and prunes are subject to attack by the same set of 
insects. The most troublesome enemies of these fruits are the 
plum curculio, the San Jose scale (p. 162) and the European 
fruit lecanium. The curculio is primarily an enemy of stone 
fruits, but also attacks the apple, pear and quince. The fruit 
lecanium, while a very general feeder, seems to be most destruc- 
tive to the plum. With the possible exception of curculio injury 
in some locations, it is not difficult to effectively protect a plum 
crop from insect attack by following a proper system of spray- 
ing. 

The Plum Curculio 
Conotrachelus nenuphar Herbst 

This native American snout-beetle or weevil whose original 
food was the fruit of the wild plum and hawthorn is generally 
distributed over the Eastern states and Canada, east of the 
Rocky Mountains, and is a serious pest east of the 100th me- 
ridian and occurs southward to Texas and Florida. It attacks 
plums, prunes, cherries, peaches, nectarines and apricots among 
stone fruits, and is also a serious enemy of apples and will at- 
tack pears and quinces. We have also reared it^ from goose- 
berries in New York. 

It is by far the most destructive insect with which the grower 

of stone fruits has to contend, particularly in the South, where it 

is especially injurious to peaches, often destroying the entire 

crop in unprotected orchards. Quaintance estimates the 

243 



244 



FRUIT INSECTS 



annual loss occasioned by this insect at over 8 J million dollars. 
Although the plum curculio does not breed as freely in apples 
as in stone fruits, still these are often seriously injured by its 
feeding and egg-laying punctures. A large proportion of those 
stung fall early in the season, while those that remain on the 
trees are usually rendered knotty and unmarketable. It has 







Fig. 219. — - The plum curculio, 
side and dorsal view ( X 5) . 



Fig. 220. — Egg of the plum 
curculio in position, the skin of 
the fruit removed. Section 
through an egg-scar of the plum 
curculio showing the egg posi- 
tion. Enlarged. 



been recognized as a serious pest for over a century, and fully 
satisfactory means of control have not yet been devised. Con- 
trol is particularly difficult because the greater part of the injury 
is caused by the adult, a long-lived, hard shelled beetle very 
difficult to poison because it feeds principally on the pulp of the 
fruit obtained through a small puncture in the skin. 

The insect passes the winter in the beetle stage, hidden away 



PLUM INSECTS 



245 



under leaves or other trash. Stone walls or hedges and adjoin- 
ing wood lots furnish ideal hibernating quarters, as is shown 
by the greater injury to that part of orchards lying nearest 
to such retreats. In the spring about the time the buds open 
the beetles desert their winter quarters and appear on the trees. 
They are small, rough snout-beetles, about J inch in length, 
mottled with black, gray and brownish, and there is a black 
shining hump on the middle of each wing cover (Fig. 219). 
The sharp-biting 
jaws are located 
at the tip of the 
snout, which hangs 
down something 
like the trunk of 
an elephant. The 
beetles attack the 
fruit as soon as it 
is set. Two kinds 
of punctures are 
made : those for 
feeding only and 
those for the recep- 
tion of the egg. In 
feeding the beetle 
cuts a small, round 
opening through the skin and then eats out a cavity in the pulp 
about | inch in depth, or as deep as it can reach with the tip 
of the snout. In egg-laying the female first makes a cut through 
the skin of the fruit and runs her snout obliquely into the flesh 
just under the skin and gouges out a cavity large enough to 
receive her egg. Then turning around, a minute, white egg is 
dropped into the hole, and reversing her position she pushes 
it into the cavity with her snout. Just in front of the hole she 
now cuts a crescent-shaped slit which she extends obliquely 




Fig. 



221. — Plum curculio egg-crescents in young 
plums. 



246 



FRUIT INSECTS 




Fig. 



underneath the egg cavity so as to leave the egg in a flap of 
the flesh (Fig. 220). Each female may lay from 100 to over 

500 eggs, and the egg-laying 
period may extend over nearly 
the whole season, although the 
great majority are laid during 
the first month after the fruit 
sets. Fruit marked by these 
characteristic egg punctures is 
shown in Figures 221 and 222. 
The eggs hatch in 3 to 7 days, 
and the white or yellowish grub 
burrows through the flesh, and 
in the case of stone fruits comes 
to lie next the pit. Infested 
fruits, most varieties of cher- 
ries excepted, usually fall to 
the ground before the grubs 
mature. In the case of apples many of the young grubs are 
killed in their burrows by the pressure of the growing fruit cells, 
for the stopping of ^^M^^ 

growth seems to be 
necessary for their 
proper develop- 
ment. 

When full-grown, 
which requires about 
twenty days from 
the time the egg is 
laid, the larva leaves 
the fruit and bur- 
rows a short dis- 
tance, not over an inch or two, into the ground, and there con- 
structs an earthen cell within which it transforms to a pupa. 



222. — Plum curculio egg-cres- 
cents in young apples. 




Fig. 



223. — Feeding punctures of the plum cur- 
culio in plums made in August. 



PLUM INSECTS 247 

About 28 days, on an average, after entering the ground the 
beetles emerge, but not all this time is passed as a pupa; 12 
to 16 days are spent in the soil before pupation, and after the 
transformation to the adult it takes several days for the beetle 
to become hardened enough to work its way to the surface. 
These beetles of the new generation do not as a rule lay eggs 
the same season, but after feeding greedily on the fruit (Fig. 223) 
for some time seek hibernating quarters on the approach of 
cold weather. In the North, the damage done by these new 
beetles may be very great, especially on plums and apples, but 
in the South, where early maturing varieties 
are grown, it is of less importance. 

Methods of control. 

Curculios thrive in neglected, over-grown, 
unpruned and uncultivated orchards sur- 
rounded by stone walls or neglected hedges 
and situated near pieces of woodland. The 
first step towards their control consists in 
correcting as far as possible all these con- 
ditions at variance with the best horti- Fig. 224. — Plum 
cultural practice. Hibernating shelter should ^J. oTSircuHo^njury" 
be reduced to a minimum by the removal of 
all stone walls and stone piles, by the cleaning up of over- 
grown hedges and fences and by the destruction of all trash ' 
under which the beetles might find shelter. The trees should 
be properly pruned to admit the sun, for curculios are shy 
creatures, preferring the deep shade for their work, and 
furthermore it has been shown in Illinois that direct sunlight 
striking the fallen fruit is soon fatal to the grubs within. Where 
the trees are large and the ground is kept smooth and free from 
weeds, it is worth while to rake the fallen fruits out into the open 
where the sun can strike them. In doing this the small early 
drops should not be neglected, for a large percentage of the 
grubs develop in fruit not much larger than peas. 




248 FRUIT INSECTS 

Frequent and thorough, though shallow, cultivation during 
the period that the tender and helpless pupae are in the ground 
is of great value. If their cells are broken open, the pupae are 
either killed at once or soon fall a prey to their natural enemies, 
principally ants and beetle larvae. To obtain the best results, 
cultivation should be continued for about a month or six weeks 
after the grubs begin to go into the ground. In the North 
this will be from about July 10 to August 10, while in the South 
it is somewhat earlier. As most of the pupal cells are within an 
inch or two of the surface, the cultivation may be quite shallow, 
but it should be thorough, and care should be taken to stir the 
ground close under the trees where most of the pupae lie. Most 
growers in the North do not favor cultivation of orchards after 
August 1, but where the curculio is abundant, the cultivation 
should be continued as late as possible without interfering with 
the maturing of the wood and fruit. 

Jarring. 

For many years this was the most satisfactory method of 
fighting the curculio on plums and peaches, but is now rarely 
practiced in commercial orchards. If the tree is suddenly 
jarred with a padded mallet, the beetles will loosen their hold, 
contract the legs and fall to the ground, feigning death for a 
considerable time. Where only a few trees are to be treated, 
the beetles may be caught on a large sheet spread beneath the 
tree. Where the ground is fairly smooth and where the trees 
are headed high enough, the work may be done more quickly 
and easily by using a wheeled curculio catcher, as described 
under quince curculio, p. 240. These machines have been 
used for many years by the plum growers of western New 
York. In the extensive Georgia peach orchards jarring has 
been practiced on a large scale. There the curculios are caught 
on sheets stretched on light frames, 12 feet long by 6 feet wide. 
Two frames are held under the tree by four persons, while the 
fifth jars the tree with a padded mallet. When the end of the 



PLUM INSECTS 249 

row is reached, the curculios are picked out for destruction, 
while the beneficial lady-bird beetles are allowed to escape. 

To be most effective, the jarring should be done very early 
in the morning, for then the beetles are less active, they fall 
more readily and are less liable to escape from the sheets. 
The trees should be gone over every morning for four or five 
weeks, or until no more beetles are captured. Unless cheap 
labor can be obtained readily, jarring is too expensive for large 
orchards and in such cases has been generally supplanted by 
improved methods of spraying. 

Spraying. 

Spraying with arsenate of lead, either alone or combined 
with a fungicide, has now come to be the favorite method 
of fighting the curculio on most crops. It has replaced Paris 
green for this purpose because it adheres better, is less 
liable to injure the foliage and can be combined with lime- 
sulfur when used as a fungicide. In general, the foliage of 
stone fruits is very susceptible to injury from soluble arsenic, 
even when present in small amounts, and repeated heavy appli- 
cations of arsenate of lead are attended with some risk. Never- 
theless, the experience of the past few years has shown that this 
danger may be avoided by following the system of spraying 
suggested below. 

Plums. 

Although the control of the curculio on plums by spray- 
ing is more difficult than on most other fruits, still many 
growers believe that the results justify the practice. Two 
applications should be made, the first soon after the petals 
fall and the second a week or ten days later, using arsenate of 
lead, 2\ pounds in 50 gallons of Bordeaux mixture (2-3-50) or 
self-boiled lime-sulfur. 

Cherries. 

In general, spraying for curculio on cherries has given better 
results than on plum. The applications should be made as 
indicated above. 



250 FRUIT INSECTS 

Peaches. 

On peaches the direct injury caused by the curculios is 
greatly augmented by the brown rot which is distributed by 
the beetles and which gains entrance to the fruit through 
their punctures. As far as spraying is concerned, the two 
problems are considered as one, and the following system has 
been devised for the control of both, based on extensive ex- 
periments in Georgia and Missouri. 

The first application should be made just as the calyxes 
(shucks) are shedding, using 2 pounds arsenate of lead to 50 
gallons of water, to which is added the milk of lime made from 
slaking 2 pounds of stone lime. As this is too early for brown 
rot, the fungicide is not used. 

The second application is made about three weeks later, using 
2 pounds of arsenate of lead in 50 gallons of the self -boiled lime- 
sulfur (8-8-50) . 

A third application should be made about one month before 
the ripening of the fruit, using self -boiled lime-sulfur only. 
The poison is omitted, because experience has shown that it is 
very unsafe to spray peaches more than twice with arsenate of 
lead. 

Apples. 

In spraying apples there is practically no danger of injury 
to the fruit or foliage by repeated applications of arsenate 
of lead. The two sprayings usually given for the codlin- 
moth, just after the petals fall and three weeks later, are 
of considerable value in controlling the curculio, but where 
the infestation is severe, additional applications will be found 
necessary. The spray often given for the second brood of the 
codlin-moth nine or ten weeks after the petals fall will help 
to control the pest, and in the South it is sometimes advisable 
to repeat the application two or three weeks later. To get the 
best results the spraying must be done in a very thorough 
manner, using a fine nozzle and high pressure in order to keep 



PLUM INSECTS 251 

the fruit evenly coated with the poison. It has been shown by 
extensive experiments in Illinois that where this plan is followed 
and other conditions are favorable, the curculio injury may be 
reduced from 20 to 40 per cent. 

In fighting the curculio, reliance should not be placed on any 
one method of attack. Clean farming to reduce available 
winter shelter, proper pruning to admit the sun, thorough 
cultivation at the proper time to destroy the pupae in the soil, 
the use of fertilizers to produce strong, healthy trees resistant 
to spray injury, are all important factors in the fight. In or- 
chards so treated the number of curculios will be reduced to a 
minimum, and the orchardist will have the best chance to pro- 
tect his crop by spraying. 

References 

Riley and Howard, Rept. Com. Agr. for 1888, pp. 57-79. 

111. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 98. 1905. 

Quaintance, U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook, for 1905, pp. 325-330. 1906. 

U. S. Bur. Ent. Circ. 73. 1906. 

Mo. State Fruit Exp. Sta. Bull. 21. 1909. 

Ga. St. Bd. Ent. Bull. 32. 1910. 

U. S. Bur. Plant Ind. Bull. 174. 1910. 

U. S. Bur. Ent. Bull. 103. 1912. 



The Plum Gouger 

Coccotorus scutellaris Le Conte 

This native snout-beetle attacks plums, prunes and nec- 
tarines throughout the North Central states. It may be dis- 
tinguished from the other fruit-infesting species by the ochre- 
yellow head, thorax and legs and the dun-colored wing covers, 
which are entirely without humps. The insect hibernates in 
the adult state. The beetles appear on the trees in spring some- 
what earlier than the plum curculio, and feed for a time on the 
buds and leaves. In confinement they have been observed to 



252 FRUIT INSECTS 

feed almost exclusively on the ovaries of the buds and blossoms, 
which they reach by puncturing the calyx. 

Soon after the fruit has set the beetles begin to feed upon the 
pulp through small punctures made in the skin. The female 
deposits her yellowish-white eggs, about ^ inch in diameter, 
singly in gourd-shaped cavities gouged out in the fruit with 
her snout. On hatching, the young grubs burrow directly into 
the pit and feed on the kernel within until full grown. The 
larva is then milk-white in color with brownish jaws, and is 
strongly curved. Before changing to a pupa it eats out an 
exit hole through the hard shell of the pit, to provide for the 
escape of the future beetle. The pupal stage is passed within 
the pit, and the beetles emerge from the fruit during late August 
and September. They do not feed to any extent the first season, 
but soon desert the trees and go into winter quarters. 

Infested plums do not fall or ripen prematurely. The prin- 
cipal injury is caused by the punctures made by the beetles 
in feeding and egg-laying ; gum exudes from the wounds, and 
deformed and misshapen fruit results. Sometimes in restricted 
localities the gouger may be more abundant and cause more 
injury than the plum curculio, but as a general thing it is not a 
serious pest. 

Treatment. 

In general the measures suggested for the control of the 
plum curculio will apply to this species, but the destruction of 
fallen fruit would be of no avail, because as a rule plums in- 
fested by the gouger do not fall prematurely. Jarring is also 
less satisfactory because the beetles fall less readily and are 
more liable to escape by flight. Although the results of defi- 
nite experiments are not available, it is probable that spraying 
with arsenate of lead as practiced for the plum curculio would 
do much to hold this pest in check. The first application 
should be made just before the blossom buds open. 



PLUM INSECTS 253 

References 

Walsh, First Rept. State Ent. 111., pp. 97-104, 1867 (second edition, 

1903). 
Riley, 3d Rept. State Ent. Mo., pp. 39-42. 1871. 
Iowa Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 9. 1890. 
Mont. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 62, pp. 211-218. 1905. 

The American Plum Borer 

Euzophera semifuneralis Walker 

While generally distributed throughout the United States 
and Canada, this insect has only occasionally become of economic 
importance. In addition to the plum it has been reported as 
attacking the pear, apple and mountain ash, and the moth has 
been reared from larvae feeding on the black-knot of plum. 

The parent insect is a small, obscurely colored grayish moth 
with an expanse of a little less than an inch. They emerge 
during late May and early June and are rarely seen, being 
nocturnal in habit. The eggs are unknown, but are probably 
deposited in cracks or crevices in the bark of the trunk and 
larger branches. The larvae eat out winding burrows next the 
sapwood, cause large dead areas in the bark and in some cases 
completely girdle the tree. Their presence is usually indicated 
by the frass thrown out of the entrance to the burrow. When 
full-grown the larva is about one inch in length and varies in 
color from dusky greenish to pinkish or reddish. In Delaware 
the evidence points to three generations annually, adults of 
the later broods appearing during the latter part of July and 
in September, but Dr. S. A. Forbes considered the species 
single brooded in Illinois. The larvae of the last brood mature 
in early November and hibernate in small white silken cocoons 
under flakes of bark or in the frass thrown out at the opening 
of the burrow. About May 1 they transform to pupae, and the 
moths appear about three weeks later. 



254 FRUIT INSECTS 

Treatment. 

As the burrows are indicated by the accumulation of frass, 
and as the larvae are always near the surface, it is an easy matter 
to dig them out with a knife. Scraping away the rough bark 
in the winter would probably destroy many larvae in their 
cocoons. The rubbish should be collected and burned, for if 
left on the ground many of the larvae would doubtless survive. 
Trees kept in a strong, healthy state by proper care are in better 
condition to sustain attack. 

References 

Forbes, 6th Ann. Rept. State Ent. 111., pp. 26-29. 1891. 
Del. Ag. Exp. Sta. Bull. 53, pp. 9-13. 1901 

The Plum Web-spinning Sawfly 

Neurotoma inconspicua Norton 

The larvae of this sawfly have the peculiar habit of webbing 
in the leaves of the plum and cherry, forming unsightly nests 
somewhat like the cherry tortrix. It has been reported from 
Manitoba, South Dakota and Massachusetts. The adult is 
a four-winged fly about § inch in length with a black body and 
rufous legs except the black coxae and tarsi ; the wings are 
hyaline with a faint fuscous band behind the stigma. They 
appear just as the leaves are expanding, and the female deposits 
her smooth, lemon-yellow elongate eggs in two or three rows 
along the midrib on the underside of the young leaves. The 
eggs hatch in about eight days, and the young larvae begin 
feeding on the leaves under cover of webs which they enlarge 
to inclose fresh leaves as more food is needed. They become 
full grown in about a month, by which time the webs frequently 
cover the entire tree. The larva is then about f inch in length, 
grayish above and yellow or pinkish below, with a yellow head 
and black thoracic shield and anal segment. When full-grown 



PLUM INSECTS 255 

they find their way to the ground, where at a depth of about 
six inches they pass the winter in earthen cells. Early the 
following spring the larva works its way up nearly to the sur- 
face and changes to a pupa just below the grass roots. The 
adults appear about May 1 in Massachusetts and the second 
week of June in South Dakota. There is only one generation a 
year. 

Treatment. 

The larvae are easily killed by a thorough spraying with 

arsenate of lead, 5 pounds to 100 gallons of water, applied 

soon after the eggs have hatched and before the large webs are 

made. 

References 

S. D. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 48. 1896. 
Fletcher, Rept. Ent. for 1896, p. 253. 
Fernald, Ent. News XIV, pp. 298-302. 1903. 

The Plum Leaf-beetle 

Nodonota tristis Olivier 

During June and July the foliage of plum, peach, cherry and 
chokecherry is occasionally attacked by small, shining, steely- 
blue flea-beetles, about \ inch in length. The early stages are 
unknown, but from what is known of the habits of related species 
the larvae probably live on the roots of plants. Eggs laid in 
confinement are described as being elongate oval, smooth, 
dirty whitish-gray in color and about -^ inch in length. They 
were laid in a mass of 36 in the fold of a leaf and hatched in 
about a week. 

The injury may be prevented by spraying with arsenate of 

lead, 4 pounds to 100 gallons of water, when the beetles are 

first noticed. 

Reference 

Chittenden, U. S. Bur. Ent. Bull. 19, pp. 93-95. 1899. 



256 



FRUIT INSECTS 



The Hop Plant-louse 



Phorodon humuli Schrank 

This notorious hop pest usually passes the winter and spring 
on the plum. It is a native of Europe and was introduced into 
New York about 1863, but now occurs throughout the country 
wherever its host plants are grown. 

The black shining oval eggs are 
deposited around the buds on the 
terminal twigs of the plum in autumn 
and hatch soon after the buds open 
the following spring. The light green 
lice cluster on the leaves and tips 
of the tender branches, sometimes 
severely injuring the crop. Usually, 
there are about three generations of 
wingless viviparous females (Fig. 225) 
on the plum and then winged forms 
are produced which migrate to the 
hop, although some of the lice have 
been known to remain on the plum 
until cold weather. On the hop the 
winged migrants start colonies of wingless viviparous females. 
These forms reproduce asexually until the approach of cold 
weather, when winged females are produced which migrate back to 
the plum and there give birth to a small number of young that 
become wingless egg-laying females. The latter are fertilized 
by male migrants from the hops and then deposit the winter 
eggs on the terminal twigs. It has been shown in California 
that this plant-louse frequently, if not normally, remains on the 
hop plant throughout the year. The wingless forms are a 
uniform yellowish-green, while those having wings have black 
markings on the thorax and abdomen. 




Fig. 225. — The hop plant- 
louse, a wingless viviparous fe- 
male of the third generation. 
Redrawn after Riley. En- 
larged. 



PLUM INSECTS 257 

Treatment. 

Unless occurring in excessive abundance this species will 
rarely require treatment on plum. Kerosene emulsion, whale- 
oil soap or tobacco extracts give satisfactory results, if applied 
before the curling of the leaves makes it impossible to hit the 

insects. 

References 

Riley, Rept. U. S. Comm. Agr. for 1888, pp. 93-111. 

Cal. Agr, Exp. Sta. Bull. 160. 1904. 

Col. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 133, pp. 40-41. 1908. 

The Plum Plant-louse 
Myzus mahaleb Fonscolombe 

This yellowish-green plant-louse closely resembles the pre- 
ceding species with which it has often been confused. It 
belongs to a different genus and may be distinguished by the 
structure of the head and antennae ; the frontal tubercles are 
not prolonged into a slender tooth and the first antennal joint is 
without the blunt tooth present in that species. It is not un- 
usual to find both forms infesting the same tree. 

The life history of the two species is very similar, but this 
form does not migrate to the hop and is able to subsist during 
the summer on a large number of plants among which may be 
mentioned the pear, sunflower, dock, kohlrabi, chrysanthemum, 
shepherd's purse, portulaca, etc. The winter eggs and spring 
generations occur on both plum and peach. 

This plant-louse can be controlled by timely spraying with 
" Black Leaf 40" tobacco extract, f pint in 100 gallons of 
water, adding 3 or 4 pounds of soap to make the liquid stick 
and spread better. Effective work can also be done with whale- 
oil soap solution or with kerosene emulsion. 

Reference 
Pergande, U, 8. Bur. Ent. Bull. 7, pp. 52-59. 1897. 



258 FRUIT INSECTS 

The Mealy Plum Louse 

Hyalopterus arundinis Fabricius 

This light green plant-louse of the plum is generally dis- 
tributed throughout the country wherever its food-plant is 
grown. It may be recognized by the three longitudinal darker 
green stripes above and by the fine white powdery covering of 
the body. 

The black shining eggs are deposited in the fall around the 
buds on the smaller branches and hatch the following spring 
soon after the opening of the leaves. The first generation is 
composed entirely of wingless females known as stem-mothers. 
They give birth to a large number of living young, all females, 
which continue to reproduce in the same way for several genera- 
tions. At first they are all wingless, but as the leaves become 
crowded and the food supply scanty part of each brood acquires 
wings and migrates to other plants until by the last of July prac- 
tically all will have left the trees, but in some instances they 
have been known to remain on the plum throughout the season. 
The alternate food-plants are, as far as known, various species 
of grasses, particularly the Reed-grass (Phragmites phragmites 
Linn). In September the return migrants appear on the trees 
and give birth to winged males and wingless females. After 
mating the latter deposit the winter eggs around the buds. 

Sometimes this plant-louse occurs in enormous numbers cover- 
ing the entire under surface of the leaves, which turn yellowish 
and drop without becoming noticeably curled. The loss of 
foliage has been known to cause the falling of the fruit, but such 
severe attacks are unusual. 

Treatment. 

In case the plant-lice appear in sufficient number as to threaten 
injury to the crop it will pay to make a thorough spraying, 
using kerosene emulsion, or one of the tobacco extracts to which 



PLUM INSECTS 259 

a small amount of soap has been added. Fortunately this 
species does not curl the leaves to any great extent, thus making 
it easier to do effective work. 

References 

N. Y. (Geneva) Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 139. 1897. 
Col. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 133, p. 39. 1908. 

The Rusty Brown Plum Aphis 

Aphis setarice Thomas 

This dark rusty brown plant-louse occurs throughout the 
Southern states and is found as far north as Minnesota. It 
sometimes causes considerable loss 
to the plum crop, particularly in the 
South, and has been known to at- 
tack the peach, being especially 
troublesome on newly budded peach 
stock in nurseries. It is sometimes 
called the southern plum aphis under y 
the scientific name of Aphis scotti. 
The general color of the body is 
rusty brown with the base of an- 
tennae, tibia? and tail white. 

The dark brown shining winter M 226 . _ stem _ mother of 
eggs are attached to the smaller the rusty brown plum aphis. 
branches and hatch about the time £^| wn after Sanborn - En " 
i^he buds open. The first brood 

consists entirely of wingless females known as stem-mothers 
(Fig. 226) ; they give birth to living young which develop into 
wingless females. There are ten or more generations during 
the season. The earlier broods are wingless, but as the 
leaves become crowded winged individuals are produced 
which migrate to other plants, mostly grasses, and start new 




260 FRUIT INSECTS 

colonies. A few, however, may remain on the plum throughout 
the season. At the approach of cold weather winged forms 
are produced that return to the plum and there give birth to 
a brood of winged males and wingless females, both sexes being 
nearly black in color. The female deposits the winter eggs 
upon the bark of the smaller branches, usually near the buds. 

Treatment. 

The usual sprays for plant-lice are effective against this 
species, but as the infested leaves curl badly, the application 
should be made as soon as the insects appear. Thorough ap- 
plications of lime-sulfur at the strength used against the San 
Jose scale are said to kill the eggs in Oklahoma. 

References 

Scott, U. S. Bur. Ent. Bull. 31, pp. 56-59. 1902. 
Ga. State Bd. Ent. Bull. 17, pp. 99-101. 1905. 
Col. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 133, p. 41. 1908. 
Okl. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 88. 1910. 

- 

The European Fruit-tree Scale 

Aspidiotus ostreceformis Curtis 

This scale insect closely resembles Putnam's scale and the 
cherry scale in size and general appearance and can be dis- 
tinguished from them only by microscopic characters. The 
full-grown female scale is nearly circular, about y 1 ^ of an inch 
in diameter, dark, ashy-gray in color and is usually easily dis- 
tinguished from the San Jose scale by the exuvial spot, which, 
instead of being blackish and central, is dark orange colored and 
located a little to one side of the center. Probably introduced 
into New York State from Europe on orchard cuttings about 
1870, this scale is now widely distributed in Canada and the 
northern United States. 

The bark of plum, apricot, currant and soft maple trees are 



PLUM INSECTS 261 

sometimes incrusted and a few trees have been killed by the 
scale in this country. It also attacks the apple, pear, cherry 
and prune, besides several shade trees. It spreads slowly in 
orchards, and as there is apparently but one generation a year, 
at least in northern regions, it will never be as dangerous or 
destructive in orchards as the San Jose scale. 

Only partly grown scales live through the winter, and these 
may reach maturity by the middle of June in New York. 
Some state that the mother scale insect gives birth to living 
young or is ovoviviparous, but we have seen eggs under the 
scales, and Reh records finding both eggs and living young 
under the scales in Europe, so the species may be partially 
oviparous also. Young are born over a period of several 
weeks and some of them often get on to the fruits, especially 
apples. 

The lady-bird beetles, Microweisea misella and Chilocorus 
bivulnerus, feed upon this scale and parasites also destroy large 
numbers of them. 

The lime-sulfur wash and other winter applications rec- 
ommended for the San Jose scale will doubtless effectually 
control this European fruit-tree scale. 

Reference 
U. S. Bur. Ent. Bull. 20, pp. 76-82. 1899. 

The European Fruit Lecanium 

Lecanium corni Bouche 

This large, brown, soft-bodied scale occurs on a large number 
of deciduous trees in both this country and Europe. Its most 
important hosts are the plum, peach, apricot, pear, apple, 
quince, currant, blackberry, mulberry, osage-orange, pecan, 
and among forest trees, elm, ash, basswood, etc. It has re- 
ceived a long list of scientific names, owing to slight variations 



262 



FRUIT INSECTS 




Fig. 227. — The European fruit 
Lecanium, eggs rolling out from be- 
neath the female scale in June. En- 
larged. 



in form and color assumed when growing on different plants. 

Although widely distributed throughout the United States and 

Canada and infesting such a 
wide range of cultivated plants, 
it has become of economic im- 
portance only a few times and 
in restricted localities. 

The most serious outbreak 
occurred in 1894 and 1895 in 
the plum orchards of western 
New York. The pest appeared 
suddenly in extraordinary num- 
bers and excited widespread 
alarm among the fruit-growers 

of that region. Fortunately, severe winter conditions, the 

attacks of parasites or some other cause so reduced their num- 
bers that within a year or two the pest 

again subsided into comparative obscurity. 
This scale insect has been studied prin- 
cipally as a plum pest. The winter is 

passed by the young, flat, spindle-shaped 

brown scales (Fig. 229) on the bark of 

the tree, mostly on the smaller branches. 

They are then about -^ inch in length. 

Early in the spring, about April 1 in 

New York, they establish themselves 

mostly on the underside of the smaller 

branches (Fig. 228). The females grow 

rapidly and by the middle of May many 

are mature. They are then about \ or Fig. 228. — A plum 

o • i • i .i ■> . n p „ branch infested with the 

■ftr inch in length and remind one of small European fruit Lecanium. 
halved peas colored brown. The male 

scale is much smaller, flatter and more elongate and is of a 
whitish color. About the time the females become mature the 




PLUM INSECTS 



263 



small, delicate, white-winged males appear and soon after 
mating perish. During the latter part of May or in June the 
female lays a large number of minute, white eggs which com- 
pletely fill the cavity beneath the scale previously occupied 
by her body (Fig. 227). Over 2000 eggs have been counted 
beneath a single scale. They hatch in about a month and the 
minute young lice crawl out on to 
the leaves and establish themselves 
along the principal veins. Infested 
leaves become curled and turn yel- 
lowish, the tree makes but little 
growth and the fruit remains under- 
sized or falls prematurely. The 
young scales collectively produce a 
great quantity of a clear sweet liquid 
known as honey-dew, which in the 
absence of heavy rains collects on 
the leaves and fruit and serves as 
a medium for the growth of a fungus 
which gives the tree a smutty, dis- 
gusting appearance. During September most of the scales 
abandon the leaves and seek winter quarters on the bark of 
the tree, mostly on the smaller branches, but a small per- 
centage fall with the leaves and probably perish. 

Treatment. 

Commercial plum growers have found little difficulty in 
controlling this scale by one or two thorough applications of 
kerosene emulsion, diluted with 4 or 5 parts of water, applied 
while the trees are dormant. Miscible oils at the usual winter 
strength can also be used to advantage. 




Fig. 229. — Hibernating 
scales on plum of the European 
fruit Lecanium. 



References 

Cornell Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 83. 1894. 
Cornell Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 108, pp. 82-86. 



1896. 



264 FRUIT INSECTS 

N. Y. (Geneva), Agr. Exp. Sta. Rept. of 1895, pp. 574-595. 1896. 
Sanders, Jour. Ec. Ent. II, pp. 443-445. 1909. 

The plum Pulvinaria (Puluinaria amygdali C.ockerell) in 

general appearance closely resembles the cottony maple scale 

(p. 427). It has been reported as attacking peach, apple, 

plum and prune. It occurs in New Mexico, Georgia and 

California. 

Other Plum Insects 

Lesser apple worm : apple, p. 23. 
Green fruit-worms : apple, p. 39. 
Bud-moth : apple, p. 42. 
Cigar-case-bearer : apple, p. 47. 
Fruit-tree leaf-roller : apple, p. 62. 
Oblique-banded leaf-roller : apple, p. 65. 
Apple leaf-skeletonizer : apple, p. 67. 
Leaf-crumpler : apple, p. 68. 
Canker-worm : apple, p. 77. 
White-marked tussock-moth : apple, p. 100. 
Apple-tree tent-caterpillar: apple, p. 112. 
Forest tent-caterpillar: apple, p. 119. 
Red-humped apple caterpillar : apple, p. 125. 
Apple bud-aphis: apple, p. 151. 
Buffalo tree-hopper : apple, p. 160. 
San Jose scale : apple, p. 162. 
Oyster-shell scale : apple, p. 171. 
Putnam's scale : apple, p. 179. 
Flat-headed apple-tree borer : apple, p. 194. 
Twig-pruner : apple, p. 200. 
Twig-girdler : apple, p. 202. 
Flea-beetles : apple, p. 203. 
Clover-mite : apple, p. 206. 
Ring-legged tree-bug : apple, p. 208. 
Eye-spotted apple-twig borer : apple, p. 209. 
New York weevil : apple, p. 210. 
Snowy tree-cricket : apple, p. 211. 
Pear thrips : pear, p. 223. 
Howard scale : pear, p. 234. 
European pear scale : pear, p. 234. 
Cherry scale : cherry, p. 312. 



PLUM INSECTS 265 

Peach-tree borer : peach, p. 266. 
Pacific peach-tree borer : peach, p. 275. 
Lesser peach-tree borer : peach, p. 276. 
Fruit-tree bark-beetle : peach, p. 277. 
Terrapin-scale : peach, p. 293. 
White peach scale : peach, p. 295. 
Green June-beetle : peach, p. 296. 
Walnut scale : currant, p. 360. 
Rose chafer : grape, p. 397. 
Cottony maple scale : grape, p. 427. 



CHAPTER VIII 

PEACH INSECTS 

While the peach easily succumbs to attacks of the San Jose 
scale, the loss occasioned by this insect is not as great as that 
produced by either the plum curculio or the peach-tree borers. 
The curculio is exceedingly destructive in the South, owing to 
the fact that it is an important factor in the distribution of 
brown rot spores. The control of the curculio on the peach is 
discussed on page 248. The foliage of the peach is very easily 
injured by spray mixtures and one must be especially careful 
in making applications of arsenicals. 

The Peach-teee Borer 

Sanninoidea exitiosa Say 

Wherever the peach is grown in the United States and Canada 
east of the Rocky Mountains it is subject to the attack of this 
native American borer, the larva of a beautiful steel-blue clear- 
wing moth. With the exception of the San Jose scale it is the 
most serious pest with which the northern peach grower has 
to contend, while in the South it is surpassed in importance 
only by the plum curculio. Quaintance in 1909 estimates the 
loss occasioned by peach-tree borers at 6 million dollars. Trees 
of all ages from nursery stock to the last relics of abandoned or- 
chards are subject to attack ; young trees are often girdled and 
killed outright, while older trees are so weakened that they are un- 
able to produce good crops of fruit. Trees whose vitality has been 

266 



PEACH INSECTS 267 

reduced by borer attacks are particularly liable to infestation 
by bark-beetles, or shot-hole borers, which soon complete their 
destruction. The peach-tree borer also infests the wild and 
cultivated cherry, plum, prune, nectarine, apricot and certain 
ornamental shrubs. 

The insect always passes the winter in the larval state. 
Throughout its range the great majority of the wintering larvae 
are less than one half grown, although a very few may be nearly 
mature. Most of the larger larvae hibernate in their burrows 
beneath the bark, but, as a rule, the smaller ones, those less than 
one half grown, pass the winter on the bark curled up under a 
thin silken covering or hibernaculum which protects them 




Fig. 230. — The peach-tree borer, full-grown ( X 3j) . 

from the surrounding mass of gum. There are, however, ex- 
ceptions in both cases ; nearly full-grown larvae are sometimes 
found in hibernaculums and some of the smaller ones hibernate 
in their burrows. In the extreme South the larvae remain in 
their burrows, feeding nearly all winter, but in New York ac- 
tivity is not resumed until the last of April or in May. At 
that time the borers either continue the old burrows or start 
new ones and soon excavate a cavity from one half to an inch 
or more wide and two or three inches long just under the outer 
bark in the inner bark and sap wood. A large quantity of gum 
exudes from the burrows and collects in conspicuous masses 
on the ground at the base of the tree. We have seen a peach 
tree, only one and one half inches in diameter, support nine 
borers nearly to maturity in a single season, and it is not un- 



268 



FRUIT INSECTS 




iiaft:*' j&k.yifc'- ^F 



Fig. 231. — Peach-tree borers in their burrows ; cocoon above with an empty 

pupa skin projecting (x \\)- 



PEACH INSECTS 



269 



common to find old trees in neglected orchards infested with 
40 or 50 borers. 

Usually the larvae confine their work to the trunk % or roots 
of the tree a short distance below the surface of the soil, but 

they are sometimes found six or eight 
inches under ground. The full-grown 
larva (Fig. 230) is about an inch in 
length and of a very light yellow color ; 
the head is dark reddish-brown, and the 
thoracic and anal shields are light brown. 
The body is sparsely clothed with brown- 
ish hairs arising from 
smooth, slightly elevated 
tubercles. 

When full-grown the 
larva usually leaves its 
burrow and incloses itself 
in a rough, brown, elon- 
gate oval cocoon com- 
posed of silk in which 
are incorporated particles 
of bark and excrement 
(Figs. 231 and 232). The 
cocoons are usually at- 
tached to the bark of the tree at or near the sur- 
face of the ground, but many are found lying 
loosely in the soil ; this is more commonly the 
case in the South. In three to five days after 
building the cocoon the larva transforms into 
a dark brown pupa about f inch in length 
(Fig. 233). In three or four weeks the pupa 
works itself halfway out of the cocoon and the steel-blue, 
clear-winged moth escapes. 

The male and female moths differ strikingly in color (Fig. 




Fig. 232. — Cocoons of 
the peach-tree borer with 
empty pupa skins project- 
ing. 




Fig. 233.— 
Male pupa of 
the peach-tree 
borer (X 3|). 



270 



FRUIT INSECTS 




234) ; in the male the four 
wings are transparent, 
with the veins, margins 
and fringes steel-blue, 
and the abdominal seg- 
ments are steel-blue nar- 
rowly fringed with yellow 
behind ; in the female the 
front wings are opaque, 
covered with steel-blue 
scales, the hind wings 
are transparent over only 
about half their area and 
the abdomen has a broad, 

Fig. 234. — Male and female moths of the orange-Colored band ex- 
peach-tree borer. , j- -, j ,i 

tending nearly around the 
body on the fourth or on both the fourth and fifth segments. 
North of latitude 40 to 42 degrees the females, as a rule, have 
the band covering 
both segments, 
while south of that 
line it is confined 
to the fourth seg- 
ment. Intergrad- 
ing specimens are 
sometimes found. 
The moths are most 
active during the 
heat of the day and 
when flying in the 
bright sunshine are 




Fig. 235. — Eggs of the peach-tree borer, enlarged. 



easily mistaken for wasps by the casual observer. 

Mating takes place very soon after the emergence of the moths 
and the female immediately begins to deposit her eggs singly 



PEACH INSECTS 



271 



or in small groups on the trunk of the tree, usually near the base. 
The egg is about ^ inch in length, chestnut or reddish-brown in 
color, ellipsoidal in form, slightly flattened at the sides, trun- 
cate and slightly hollowed at the tip and beautifully sculp- 
tured, as shown in Figure 235. It has been shown by dissection 
of the moths that each female is capable of laying from 200 to 
600 eggs. They hatch in 9 or 10 days and 
the young larvae soon start their burrows in the 
soft bark. 

The exact time of the emergence of the moths 
and the deposition of the eggs is a matter of 
great practical importance, and although it has 
received considerable attention by entomo- 
logical workers, the data now available are not 
as complete as might be wished. In New York 
the moths have been known to emerge as early 
as June 12 and as late as the last of September, 
but most of them appear from July 1 to 
August 15. In New Jersey the period of 
maximum emergence is from June 15 to Sep- 
tember 15 ; at Washington, D. C, it is prac- 
tically the same, although a few moths may 
emerge in late May. In South Carolina most 
of the moths emerge between July 20 and September 20, after 
which date only a few stragglers are seen. In Georgia and 
generally throughout the South a few moths may emerge as 
early as April or May, but the majority appear between August 1 
and October 1. We would naturally expect the larvae to mature 
and give rise to the adults earlier in the warm climate of the 
Southern states than in New York or New Jersey with their 
shorter growing season, but it is now well proved that such is 
not the case. The cause of this peculiar phenomenon is un- 
known. 




Fig. 236. — 
Empty pupa skin 
of the lesser peach- 
tree borer project- 
ing from its bur- 
row in a plum 
branch. 



272 FBUIT INSECTS 

Treatment. 

The best results in the control of the peach-tree borer in com- 
mercial orchards are, as a rule, obtained by digging out the borers 
with a knife or some similar instrument, after which the trunk 
is treated with some good protective wash and the earth 
mounded up around the tree to a height of six to eight inches. 
Some successful growers rely entirely on the digging-out and 
mounding methods and omit the wash. Where the pest is at 
all troublesome the trees should be gone over carefully twice 
a year ; once as late as convenient in the fall and again the first 
part of June. In digging out the borers the earth is first re- 
moved from around the base of the tree to a depth of four or 
five inches when the larger burrows will be indicated by conspic- 
uous masses of gum. By scraping the bark with a knife or brush 
most of the smaller ones can be easily located. Particularly 
in the fall many of the borers are on the surface of the bark, 
covered merely by a mass of gum, where they are easily found 
and destroyed. To get at the larger borers in their burrows 
in the bark and sapwood considerable cutting may be necessary, 
but if it is done carefully and mostly in the direction of the 
grain of the wood, the wound soon heals and little or no injury 
is done the tree. 

After the borers have been dug out in June the earth should 
be replaced at once and mounded up around the trunk to a 
height of eight or ten inches. This forces the moths to deposit 
their eggs higher on the trunk and causes the larvae to enter the 
bark farther from the roots, where it is easier to locate and de- 
stroy them. The combination of the digging-out and mound- 
ing methods is the cheapest and most practicable way of con- 
trolling the peach-tree borer. The number of borers can be 
kept below the danger limit by this system alone if the work 
be thoroughly and regularly done, and if there are no neglected 
orchards near by to furnish moths for a constant reinfesta- 
tion. 



PEACH INSECTS 273 

After the removal of the borers in the fall there is nothing 
to be gained by applying washes or wrappers, but many growers 
believe it pays to make such applications in June before mound- 
ing the earth around the trunks. At least fifty different kinds 
of washes have been suggested for preventing the attacks of 
the peach-tree borer in the century or more that American 
fruit-growers have been fighting this pest ; some have been found 
injurious to the tree and many others practically worthless ; 
most of these have been eliminated so that now only a very 
few are in common use. In general, washes are less effective 
than one would expect because it is very difficult to cover the 
rough bark of the tree trunk thoroughly enough to fill all the 
minute cracks and crevices through which the young larvae 
usually gain entrance. Furthermore, the growth of the tree 
causes the wash to crack, thus exposing a fresh surface to the 
young borers. Many washes contain a poison, Paris green or 
arsenate of lead, intended to poison the borers as they gnaw 
through the protective coat, but they are of doubtful value. 
The young larvae are very active and will usually be able to find 
some unprotected crevice before beginning to feed. 

In an extensive series of experiments conducted in New York 
in 1895-1900 and also in the hands of some commercial growers 
gas tar as a protective wash has given excellent results, but as 
others have found it injurious to the trees under certain conditions 
it should be used with caution. It should not be applied to 
trees the first year after planting, before they are thoroughly 
established, nor should it be used in the fall. If applied to 
healthy trees in the spring while the vegetative growth is active, 
there is little danger of injury. A wash much used in com- 
mercial orchards in Georgia consists of 2 quarts soap, J pint 
crude carbolic acid, 2 ounces Paris green, all mixed in a pail 
of water, to which enough lime and clay have been added to 
make a thin paste. In New Jersey a wash is strongly recom- 
mended composed of 1 pound arsenate of lead in 5 gallons lime- 



274 FRUIT INSECTS 

sulfur at ordinary winter strength to which has been added an 
excess of lime. 

Various kinds of wrappers for the prevention of the entrance 
of the borers were formerly much used, but are now generally 
discarded because of their tendency to render the bark tender. 
Where conditions are such as to warrant their use wrappers 
made of several layers of newspapers or cheap brown paper 
tied tightly around the trunk and extending from the roots to 
a height of about two feet give fairly good protection at a mini- 
mum of expense and labor. Tarred paper is frequently recom- 
mended, but it is no more effective than the cheaper newspaper 
wrappers. Tobacco stems wound tightly around the trunk 
from the roots to a little above the surface of the ground kept 
out from two thirds to five sixths of the borers in the New York 
experiment mentioned above. They are cheaply obtained at 
cigar factories and are worthy of further trial. Wrappers to 
do the most good should be in place and kept intact through- 
out the egg-laying period, which varies in different parts of the 
country, as stated above. To be most effective washes and 
wrappers should always be used in combination with the digging- 
out and mounding methods. 

Wire cages loosely encircling the trunk and tightly closed at 
the top with cotton were strongly recommended in Missouri 
some years ago, but further experiments have shown that they 
are practically worthless, although theoretically they should 
give perfect protection. Actually more borers were found in 
trees fitted with these devices than in those entirely unprotected. 

References 

N. J. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 128. 1898. 
Cornell Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 176. 1899. 
Cornell Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 192. 1901. 
Georgia Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 73. 1906. 
N. J. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 235. 1911. 



PEACH INSECTS 275 

The Pacific Peach-tree Borer 
Sanninoidea opalescens Henry Edwards 

This insect, closely related to the peach-tree borer of the 
Eastern states, attacks the peach, almond, apricot, prune and 
cherry on the Pacific Coast. Its habits and mode of attack 
are very similar to those of the Eastern form. Nearly all sizes 
of larvae are found in the trees in the winter ; these mature and 
transform to moths at different times throughout the growing 
season, thus giving a long period during which the eggs are de- 
posited. The male moth has the transverse mark and outer 
margin of the front wings broader than in the Eastern species ; 
in the female the fore wings are opaque, the hind wings trans- 
parent and the abdomen is entirely blue or green-black, with- 
out any yellow band. 

This pest may be controlled by digging out the larva during 
the winter or early spring. To prevent the entrance of the 
newly hatched larvae a protective wash should be applied to 
the trunk, from the roots to a height of 18 inches from the sur- 
face of the ground. Excellent results have been obtained by 
using a wash made according to the following formula, and 
known as the lime-crude-oil mixture : place about 50 pounds 
of rock lime in a barrel and slake with 10 or 15 gallons of warm 
water ; while the lime is boiling, slowly pour in 6 or 8 gallons 
of heavy crude oil, and stir thoroughly. Add enough water to 
make the whole a heavy paste. Asphaltum has also been 
found a safe and efficient protection. 

The bisulphide of carbon treatment, strongly recommended 
in California a few years ago, is now generally discarded as be- 
ing too dangerous and expensive. 

References 

Cal. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 143. 1902. 
U. S. Bur. Ent. Bull. 97, Pt. IV. 1911. 



276 FRUIT INSECTS 

The Lesser Peach-tree Borer 

Sesia pictipes Grote and Robinson 

This insect is also closely related to the peach-tree borer, 
with which it has sometimes been confused. Besides the peach 
it also attacks plum, cherry, June berry, beach plum and chest- 
nut. It is widely distributed throughout the United States 
and Canada. 

Unlike the peach-tree borer the larvae do not confine their 
attacks to the crown but more often occur on the trunk and 
larger branches. They usually infest old trees with rough bark, 
and most of the burrows are found in the vicinity of wounds. 
The pinkish or translucent larvae very closely resemble those of 
the peach-tree borer, but are somewhat smaller. When full- 
grown the larva eats out an exit hole nearly through the bark, 
and in a suitable cavity beneath constructs an oval cocoon of 
bits of bark and frass bound together with silken thread. A few 
days after the construction of the cocoon the larva changes into 
a brownish-yellow, spindle-shaped pupa about f inch in length. 
The moth emerges in about a month or a little less in the South, 
leaving the empty pupal skin projecting from the burrow (Fig. 
236) . Both sexes of the moths resemble the male of the peach- 
tree borer, having all four wings transparent. Larvae of all 
stages except the first may be found during the winter. These 
mature at different times throughout the summer and give a 
continuous supply of moths. In the South there are two genera- 
tions annually, while in the North there is probably only one. 

Treatment. 

This borer rarely attacks perfectly sound uninjured trees and 
is of little economic importance in commercial orchards which 
receive good care. It is best controlled by digging out the larvae, 
after which the wounds should be treated with some protective 
wash. The work may be done in connection with the treat- 
ment for the peach-tree borer. 



PEACH INSECTS 



277 



Reference 
U. S. Bur. Ent. Bull. 68, Pt. IV. 1907. 




Fig. 237— The fruit-tree bark-beetle (x20) . 



The Fruit-tree Bark-beetle 

Scolytus rugulosus Ratzeburg 

This European bark-beetle was first noticed in this country 
in 1877 in the vicinity of Elmira, N. Y. It now occurs in Canada, 
and is generally distributed 
over the Eastern states as 
far South as Alabama and 
Georgia. It breeds freely 
in the peach, plum, cherry, 
apricot and apple and will 
also attack quince, moun- 
tain "ash, June berry and 
chokecherry. Its presence 
is indicated by numerous 
small exit holes in the bark, about yg inch in diameter, hence 
its common name of shot-hole borer. In stone fruits its work 

is rendered con- 
spicuous by the 
gum which oozes 
from the bur- 
rows and hangs 
in unsightly 
masses from the 
branches (Fig. 
243). 

The adult, or 
beetle, is about 
yV inch in length and of a dark brown color, except parts of 
the legs and the tips of the wing covers, which are dull reddish 




Fig. 238. 



Brood chamber and larval burrows of the 
fruit-tree bark-beetle. 



278 



FRUIT INSECTS 



Fig. 239. — Peach 
branch with bark re- 
moved to show the 
burrows of the fruit- 
tree bark-beetle. 



(Fig. 237). They emerge in early spring, 
and the female immediately seeks out a 
suitable branch in which to deposit her eggs. 
Having selected the place, she burrows di- 
rectly to the sapwood, and there partly in 
the wood and partly in the bark constructs 
an egg chamber which usually runs length- 
wise of the branch and is from § to 2 inches 
long (Fig. 238). From time to time as the 
burrow advances she lays her minute, deli- 
cate white eggs close together in a single 
row on each side of the chamber, gluing 
them in place with a gummy secretion. It 
takes her not far from a week to complete 
the egg chamber, and as the eggs hatch in 
about three days those first laid hatch before 
the last are deposited. On hatching, the 
minute, whitish grubs start their burrows at 
right angles to the egg chamber, but soon 
change the direction, so that by the time 
they are full-grown most of the burrows are 
running lengthwise of the branch (Fig. 239). 
The full-grown larvae are about t 3 q inch in 
length, whitish in color, with brown mouth 
parts; the anterior segments are consider- 
ably enlarged, and the hind end of the body 
is obtusely rounded. They become grown 
in about 20 days, and then excavate a narrow 
cavity in the sapwood about § inch deep, 
plug the opening with sawdust and trans- 
form to pupae within (Fig. 241). In about 
10 days the beetles gnaw their way to the 
surface. The complete life cycle requires 
from four to six weeks. The separate 



PEACH INSECTS 



279 



broods greatly overlap, making it very difficult to determine 
accurately the number of generations a year. The evidence 




Fig. 240. — Burrows of the fruit-tree bark-beetle ; (e) entrance hole, (e.t.) 
egg tunnel cut by adult, (lg) larval gallery, (p.c.) plugged entrance to pupal 
cell. Redrawn after Swaine. 

available goes to show that in the North there are probably 
two generations, while in the South there are three, four or 
even more. The winter is passed as larvae either partially 
grown in the burrows or full-grown in the pupal chamber. 

These bark beetles do not 
seem to be able to breed 
either in healthy, strongly 
growing trees or in entirely 
dead dry branches. They 
prefer trees that have been 
weakened from injury, lack 
of care, or from some other _ _, . _ .. .. , , , 

7 Fig. 241. — Section through bark and 

Cause. Still when very wood of apple branch infested with the 

abundant they will attempt l r 1 \ xit " tree bark-beetle showing its burrow 

tilled with frass and the larva in its 

to enter perfectly healthy pupal cell. Enlarged. 

trees, selecting those parts 

where the vitality is lowest. In the case of stone fruits 

they are either driven out or killed by the copious flow of 




280 



FRUIT INSECTS 



sap into their burrows (Fig. 
242), but continued at- 
tacks will in time so weaken 
the tree that the females 
are able to gain a foothold 
and deposit their eggs. On 
cherries a peculiar injury 
is often noticed in mid- 
summer. The short spurs 
bearing the clusters of 
leaves are attacked by a 
beetle, which eats out a 
short burrow apparently 
for food only, since eggs 
are never found in these 
burrows, and they are soon 
deserted. The dead leaves 
remain on the branch for 
some time and call atten- 
tion to the injury. 
Treatment. 

To avoid an infestation by bark beetles the trees should be 
kept in a vigorous condition by proper cultivation, pruning, and 




Fig. 242. — Fruit-tree bark-beetle killed 
by gum while attempting to enter a healthy 
peach tree for egg-laying. Enlarged. 



mik 




Fig. 243. — Gum exuding from a peach branch infested with the fruit-tree 

bark-beetle. 



spraying, for the beetles are not able to breed in healthy, strongly 
growing trees or branches. All trees in too poor condition to 
be of commercial value should be removed before they become 



PEACH INSECTS 281 

centers of infestation. Near-by abandoned orchards, brush 
piles, old neglected cherry trees, and chokecherry trees along 
roadsides and fences frequently harbor the pests in countless 
numbers and should be kept under close observation or de- 
stroyed. We have seen a thrifty young apple orchard se- 
verely attacked by beetles that come from a large pile of 
fire wood from an old apple orchard that had been cut 
down. When an orchard has become badly infested severely 
injured trees and branches should be removed and burned 
before the beetles have had a chance to escape. Slightly in- 
fested trees may sometimes be saved by a rather severe pruning, 
thorough cultivation and the application of some quick-acting 
fertilizer. After the beetles have entered the bark there is no 
practicable way of reaching them with an insecticide. A 12 
per cent emulsion of avenarius carbolineum is said to kill the 
beetles in their burrows. Certain deterrent washes, however, 
have been shown to possess considerable protective value when 
applied in the spring just before the beetles appear and repeated 
once or twice during the season. A stiff whitewash applied 
to the trunk and larger branches has given good results ; its 
efficiency is increased by the addition of one gallon of chloro- 
naphtholeum or avenarius carbolineum to each 50 gallons of the 
wash, and the addition of one fourth pound of salt to each pail 
of the wash will add to its sticking qualities. In commercial 
peach orchards in Georgia fairly good protection has been pro- 
cured at a reasonable cost by the use of lime-sulfur at the 
strength used against scale, the application being made just 
before the appearance of the beetles in the spring. 

References 

111. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 15. 1891. 

N. J. Agr. Exp. Sta. 15th Ann. Rept. for 1894, pp. 565-572. 

U. S. Bur. Ent. Circ. 29 (Revised edition), 1903. 

Ohio Agr. Exp. Sta. Circ. 140. 1913. 



282 



FRUIT INSECTS 



The Peach Bark-beetle 
Phlceotribus liminaris Harris 

In habits and in the nature of its injuries this species is very 
similar to the foregoing, but its range of food plants is more 
restricted, its attacks being confined principally to the 
peach and cherry. It is a native of this country and occurs 
in Canada and the Eastern states as far south as North 
Carolina. 

Unlike the preceding species it hibernates in the beetle stage 

either in the pupal cavities 
or in specially constructed 
hibernation chambers ex- 
cavated in the bark of 
healthy trees. The small 
brownish beetles (Fig. 244) 
emerge in early spring and 
at once begin to excavate 
their egg burrows under the 
bark of weakened or dying 
trees . These burrows usually 
run transversely around the branch and are distinguished from 
those of the preceding species by having a short side branch (Fig. 
245) which with the short tunnel running to the entrance hole in 
the bark makes a Y-shaped end to the main egg burrow. The side 
branch enables the female to turn around in the burrow and is 
also occupied by the male at the time of mating. The minute 
white eggs are deposited in small niches in the walls of the main 
burrow and are covered with sawdust. Each female may lay 
from 80 to 160 eggs. Those of the first brood hatch in about 
20 days, while those of the summer generation require only about 
half as long. The young grubs burrow away from the egg 
chamber at right angles and generally follow the grain of the 




Fig. 244. — The peach bark-beetle (X 22). 



PEACH INSECTS 



283 



wood, but gradually diverge as they advance. In 25 or 30 days 
the full-grown grubs transform to pupae in the enlarged ends 
of the burrows near the outer surface of the bark. From 4 to 
6 days are spent in the pupal stage, but as a rule the beetles do 
not emerge until a week or two later. In northern Ohio there 
are two generations a year, the beetles appearing in greatest 
numbers in March and early April, in July and again in October, 
when they go into hibernation. The broods overlap, so that 
after July all stages are present under the bark until cold weather. 




Fig. 245. — Burrows of the peach bark-beetle ; (e. n.) egg nitch. 

after Swaine. 



Redrawn 



The beetles may be distinguished from the preceding species 
by the following points : the club of the antenna is lamellate"; 
when viewed from the side the venter of the abdomen appears 
nearly straight, not turned abruptly upward and the pronotum 
is bent strongly downward, so that the head is scarcely visible 
from above (Fig. 244). 

Treatment. 

The measures suggested against the fruit-tree bark-beetle 
are also applicable to the present species. From experiments 
conducted in Ohio it is recommended that, in order to keep out 
the greatest number of beetles, the whitewash should be ap- 



284 FRUIT IX SECTS 

plied three times : in late March or early April, about the middle 
of July and in late September or October. 

Reference 
U. S. Bur. Ent. Bull. 68, Pt. IX. 1909. 

The Peach Twig-borer 

Anarsia lineatella Zeller 

This European peach pest is now generally distributed 
throughout the United States and Canada wherever its host 

plant is cultivated. 
It is sometimes 
troublesome in the 
Eastern states and 
/wA w*^' has become a serious 

& pest on the Pacific 

Fig. 246. — Moth of the peach twig-borer (x 5). Coast where it is 

estimated that its attacks cause a loss of about one fourth 
of the peach crop in certain regions. The over-wintering 
larva? burrow into the tender shoots in early spring, cause 
them to die and give the tree the appearance of having 
been scorched by fire ; the summer generations likewise burrow 
in the new growth but also attack the fruit, particularly of 
late varieties. 

The insect hibernates as a small larva, about T V inch in 
length, in a silk-lined cavity just beneath the outer bark, usually 
in the crotch at the base of the new growth. The location of 
the hibernating cavities is indicated by the small, reddish-brown . 
mounds of bits of bark webbed together with silk thrown out 
of the cavity. In early spring the larva enlarges the cavity 
by feeding on the surrounding tissues and reaches the surface 
in 10 to 14 days. The larvae then attack the young growth, bur- 




PEACH INSECTS 285 

rowing into the pith of the tender shoots, which soon wilt and die. 
The same larva usually attacks a number of twigs in succession 
thus causing an amount of injury out of proportion to the quan- 
tity of tissue consumed. Three or four larvae have been known 
to kill a three-year-old tree by destroying all the new growth. 

When full-grown, the reddish-brown larvae, about § to § inch 
in length, crawl to the larger branches or trunk, where within 
the curled flakes of the outer bark they construct very loose 
cocoons consisting of only a few threads of silk. The pupa varies 
from light to dark yellow in color and is about J inch in length. 
The pupal period lasts from 10 to 12 days. The inconspicuous, 
steel-gray moths (Fig. 246), with an expanse of about \ inch, 
deposit their white or yellowish elongate oval eggs on the bark 
of the new twigs near the base of the leaves. These eggs hatch 
in about ten days, and the second brood of caterpillars attack 
the tips of the growing branches during the latter part of May in 
California. After about 20 days, or early in June, they leave the 
burrows in the tips of the young shoots and attack the fruit if 
present. Most of these larvae enter the fruit at the stem end 
along the suture and eat out a considerable cavity in the flesh, 
which becomes filled with excrement and gum ; sometimes they 
burrow next the stone, or in case the pit is split they may devour 
the kernel. The second-brood larvae become mature during 
July and August and pupate in very slight cocoons in the 
hollow at the stem end of the peach. The third brood of moths 
deposit their eggs on the fruit on the edge of the depression 
around the insertion of the stem. Soon after hatching, the third- 
brood larvae enter the fruit and feed within until full-grown, 
when they eat their way out and pupate at the base of the fruit, 
•as in the case of the second brood. Moths of the fourth brood 
begin to emerge by the middle of August, so that they become 
mixed with belated individuals of the third brood. These moths 
of the last brood deposit their eggs in late August and September 
in cracks and rough places in the bark. These eggs hatch in 



286 FRUIT INSECTS 

about five days, and the young larvae soon excavate small cavi- 
ties in the bark at the base of the new growth in which to pass 
the winter. 

Treatment. 

Extensive experiments in California have shown that the 
peach twig-borer may be satisfactorily controlled by thorough 
and timely spraying with the lime-sulfur wash. The applica- 
tion should be made just after the buds begin to swell and may 
be continued until the first blossoms appear. This is the period 
at which the young larvae are leaving their winter quarters 
and are most easily reached by the spray. Kerosene or distil- 
late emulsion may be used at this time, but is somewhat less 
effective and is more likely to cause injury. Winter applica- 
tions of either the emulsions or the lime-sulfur wash are of little 
value in the control of this insect, because at that time the larvae 
are out of harm's way in their hibernating burrows in the bark. 
It was formerly supposed that the oil would be absorbed by the 
frass, penetrate the burrow and kill the larva, but later work 
has shown that it penetrates very slowly if at all, and the practice 
is now generally discarded. In case the early application of the 
lime-sulfur wash has been omitted it will pay to spray the 
trunks and larger branches with kerosene or distillate emulsion 
in late spring to kill the first-brood pupae in their flimsy cocoons 
in the curls of bark. This treatment cannot be relied upon to 
control the pest, but may be used to supplement the use of the 
lime-sulfur wash when for any reason it may seem to have been 
ineffective. 

References 

U. S. Dept. Agr. Farm. Bull. 80. 1898. 
Cal. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 144. 1902. 

Cenopis diluticostana Waslingham sometimes causes an injury 
to peaches very similar to the work of the peach twig-borer. 
17th Rept. N. Y. State Ent., p. 736. 1901. 



PEACH INSECTS 287 

The Striped Peach Worm 
Gelechia confusella Chambers 

In restricted localities in Michigan peaches are sometimes 
attacked by small, dirty, yellowish-white caterpillars marked on 
the back and sides by six longitudinal, reddish-brown stripes ; 
when full-grown they are about f inch in length. They appear 
in July and again in September and feed upon the leaves, which 
they web together into loose nests. When full-grown, they 
transform to pupae within the nest. The winter is passed in 
the pupal state. The moth has an expanse of about f inch ; 
the front wings are almost black with a purplish gloss ; the hind 
wings are cinereous. 

When only a few trees are infested, it will pay to cut out and 
burn the nests. In larger orchards the first-brood caterpillars 
can be destroyed when they first appear by spraying with arse- 
nate of lead, 4 pounds to 100 gallons of water, to which 4 pounds 
of lime should be added to prevent burning of the foliage. 

References 

Mich. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 175, pp. 347-349. 1899. 
Mich. Agr. Exp. Sta. Sp. Bull. 24, pp. 57. 1904. 

The Peach Sawfly 
Pamphilius persicus MacGillivray 

This insect has recently become locally troublesome in 
peach orchards in Connecticut ; it also occurs in Nebraska. 
The adult sawflies are black with yellow markings on the head, 
thorax and antennae, and with the abdomen behind the basal 
plates rufous ; they are about f inch in length. They emerge 
from the ground in late May or early June, and the female de- 
posits her pearly white, elongate eggs along the midrib on the 



288 FRUIT INSECTS 

underside of the leaf. The eggs hatch in about a week and the 
larva first eats out a narrow strip of the leaf from the edge 
towards the center and then rolls over a portion of the leaf, 
making a case within which it remains during the day, feeding 
mostly at night. The foliage of badly infested trees presents 
a characteristic shredded appearance. 

The larvae grow rapidly and become full-grown in about 
10 days ; they are then about f inch in length and are of a pale 
bluish-green color. When mature they enter the ground to a 
depth of three to six inches, where they remain curled up in 
small round earthen cells about \ inch in diameter until the 
following spring. The transformation to the naked greenish 
pupa takes place in late May and early June and the adults 
appear about two weeks later. There is only one generation 
annually. 

Treatment. 

This pest has been satisfactorily controlled in commercial 

orchards by thorough spraying, just after the hatching of the 

eggs, with arsenate of lead, 5 to 6 pounds to 100 gallons of water. 

This is doubtless stronger than necessary ; 4 pounds to 100 

gallons would probably be just as efficient and safer for the 

foliage. 

Reference 

Conn. Agr. Exp. Sta. Rept. for 1907, pp. 285-300. 1908. 

Another species of sawfly (Caliroa amygdalina Rohwer) 
has been reported as attacking the peach and plum in Louisiana. 
The adult sawflies appear in March or April. The female in- 
serts her semi-transparent flattened eggs into the tissue of the 
leaf from the upper surface, and they lie next to the lower 
epidermis ; they hatch in four to six days. The tad-pole shaped 
larvae are smooth and shining, and until the last stage are covered 
with a viscid slime. In feeding they skeletonize the leaf in the 
manner of the pear slug. They become full grown in 9 to 10 



PEACH INSECTS 289 

days, and then enter the ground to the depth of a few inches, 

where they transform to pupae inside a tough brownish cocoon. 

The adult sawflies emerge in about nine days. The whole 

life cycle is completed in less than a month and there are several 

generations annually. Doubtless this insect can be controlled 

by the same measures as are recommended against the pear 

slug. 

References 

La. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 48, pp. 142-145. 1897. 
XL S. Bur. Ent. Bull. 97, Pt. V. 1911. 

The Black Peach Aphis 

Aphis persicce-niger Smith 

This dark brown or black plant-louse is a serious enemy of 
the peach in certain parts of the Eastern states, particularly 
in Delaware, Maryland, New Jersey and Virginia. It occurs 
in Colorado and California and has been reported from Ontario, 
Canada. It is a native insect, and the wild plum was probably 
its original host plant. 

This plant-louse feeds throughout the year upon the roots 
of the tree and during spring and early summer is also found 
upon the tender twigs and leaves. It breeds agamically all the 
year round, and no males or eggs have been found. Only the 
wingless forms occur upon the roots, where they breed freely, and 
are to be found at all seasons of the year, often a foot or more 
beneath the surface even in stiff clay soils, although sandy soils 
are preferred. Early in spring, as soon as the buds begin to 
swell, some of these root forms make their way to the surface 
and establish colonies on. the new growth. They increase 
rapidly, so that in a few weeks the tender twigs and even the 
leaves become entirely covered by masses of the dark brown 
or black lice. As their feeding quarters become crowded winged 
forms (Fig. 248) develop and fly to other trees, where they es- 



290 



FRUIT INSECTS 




tablish new colonies. In midsummer most of the lice leave the 
branches and migrate to the roots, but usually a few remain 
above ground until winter. The full-grown wingless form 

(Fig. 247) is a little less than -^ inch 
in length, nearly .black with portions 
of the legs yellowish. The winged 
form is a little longer and more slen- 
der; the young resemble the adults, 
but are lighter in color. 

The greater part of the injury to 
the trees is caused by the under- 
| ground form, although when very 

Fig. 247. The black abundant the aerial forms may kill 

peach aphis, adult apterous + rpi ' \ uvv paused bv 

viviparous female. Enlarged. VO un g trees - ine mjury caUbea Dy 

Redrawn after Miss M. A. the root form is often mistaken for 
palmer ' peach yellows or attributed to some 

other cause, as winter injury, poor soil or the use of winter insec- 
ticides. The trees are stunted, do not put out the proper new 
growth and the foliage takes on a yellowish sickly appearance. 
Nursery stock is very liable to infestation, especially when grown 
on light sandy soil. The 
lice remain on the roots at 
the time of digging and are 
thus introduced into new 
orchards. Trees are most 
susceptible to injury the first 
and second years after plant- 
ing. Even if not killed out- . FlG - 2 f 48 - ~ Th t ™* ck / eac L^± s : 

& t winged female. Enlarged. Redrawn 

right their vitality may be after Miss M. A. Palmer. 

so weakened that they never 

fully recover, but always remain undersized and incapable of 

bearing full crops of fruit. 

Treatment. 

To avoid introducing the pest into new orchards set only 




PEACH INSECTS 291 

nursery stock which has been properly fumigated with hydro- 
cyanic acid gas. Where this is impossible the roots should be 
cleaned of dirt and immersed for a few minutes in a strong 
tobacco decoction to kill any lice which may have remained 
upon them. When trees are found to be infested after they are 
planted remove the earth about the tree to a depth of a few 
inches and apply a pound or so of tobacco dust and replace the 
earth. The tobacco acts both as an insecticide and as a ferti- 
lizer, killing some of the lice and helping the tree to outgrow the 
attack. The orchard should be kept under thorough cultiva- 
tion and supplied with proper plant-food to promote a strong, 
vigorous growth. If the aerial forms, on the new growth, be- 
come troublesome at any time, they can be controlled easily by 
thorough spraying with kerosene emulsion, whale-oil soap, 1 
pound in 6 gallons of water, or tobacco extract combined with 

soap solution. 

References 

N. J. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 72, pp. 20-23. 1890. 
Cornell Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 49, pp. 325-331. 1892. 
U. S. Dept. Agr. Yearbook, 1905, pp. 342-344. 1906. 
N. J. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 235, pp. 32-35. 1911. 

The Green Peach Aphis 
Myzus persicce Sulzer 

The leaves, blossoms and young fruit of the peach are often 
attacked by a pale green or greenish-yellow plant-louse which 
sometimes causes serious injury to the crop. This European 
insect was introduced into this country many years ago and is 
now generally distributed throughout the United States and 
Canada. It has a wide range of food-plants, including, besides 
a number of deciduous fruits, the orange, many garden, truck 
and ornamental plants and numerous weeds ; it is also a green- 
house pest. Until recently the form infesting garden and green- 
house plants has been known as Rhopalosiphum dianthi Shrank. 



292 



FRUIT INSECTS 




The black, shining winter eggs of the insect are found in the 
axils of the buds and in the crevices of the bark on the peach, 
plum, apricot, nectarine and cherry. The eggs hatch in early 
spring so that the pinkish stem-mothers are nearly full-grown 
by the time the blossoms open and soon begin to give birth to 
living young. These forms resemble the stem-mother in form, 
but are pale yellowish-green and usually have three longitudinal 
lines of darker green on the abdomen. A few of the second and 
nearly all of the third generation acquire wings and fly away 
to other plants. Among the many summer food-plants the most 
important are cabbage, 
cauliflower, radish, turnip 
and potato, while spinach, 
cucumber, tomato, egg 
plant, lettuce and celery 
are sometimes seriously in- 
jured. Violets, roses and 
carnations are particularly 
liable to infestation when 
grown under glass. During 

the summer winged forms are produced from time to time 
as the feeding quarters become crowded. At the approach 
of cold weather, winged females (Fig. 249) return to the peach, 
establish themselves along the veins on the underside of the 
leaves and give birth to true or sexual females. The latter are 
usually of a pinkish color similar to the stem-mothers of the 
preceding spring. After pairing with the winged males, they 
deposit their eggs in the axils of the buds and in crevices of the 
bark. The insect does not hibernate exclusively in the egg stage, 
but the wingless forms are frequently able to survive the winter 
under suitable protection in the vicinity of their herbaceous 
food-plants. 

The injury to the peach is all done early in the season; the 
early broods attack the blossoms and frequently blight them ; 



Fig. 249. — The green peach aphis, fall 
migrant. Enlarged. Redrawn after Miss 
M. A. Palmer. 



PEACH INSECTS 293 

the leaves become curled, turn yellow or red and in severe cases 
drop ; even the young fruit itself is sometimes attacked, wilts 
and falls prematurely. 

Treatment. 

The green peach aphis when infesting the peach is not a difficult 
insect to control by the use of contact sprays, provided the appli- 
cation is made before the curling of the leaves makes it impossi- 
ble to hit the lice. The eggs hatch rather early in the spring, 
and the stem-mothers collect around the swelling buds. Ex- 
cellent results have been obtained in commercial orchards by 
spraying at this time, just before the opening of the buds, with 
5 per cent kerosene emulsion, miscible oils or tobacco extracts 
to which soap has been added at the rate of 4 pounds in 100 

gallons. 

References 

Taylor, Jour. Ec. Ent. I, pp. 83-91. 1908. 

Col. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 133, pp. 32-37. 1908. 

Va. Truck Exp. Sta. Bull. 2, pp. 30-32. 1909. As a spinach pest. 

The Terrapin Scale 

Lecaniwm nigrofasciatum Pergande 

This native enemy of the peach and plum is generally dis- 
tributed throughout the United States east of the Mississippi 
and also occurs in Minnesota, Missouri, Arkansas and Texas. 
In addition to the peach and plum, it attacks, among others, 
the apple, olive, maple, basswood, birch and blueberry. Pre- 
vious to 1898 this species was confused with the European peach 
scale (Lecanium persicce Fabricius). As a peach pest it has 
caused considerable loss in the orchards of southern Pennsyl- 
vania, New Jersey and Maryland. The injury to the tree 
itself is not serious, but the principal loss comes from the honey- 
dew secreted by the scales. This sweet, sticky substance accu- 
mulates on the tree and serves as a medium for the growth of a 



294 



FRUIT INSECTS 




sooty black fungus that renders the fruit practically unsalable. 
The winter is passed by the fertilized females on the smaller 
branches. These scales are about T V inch in length, nearly 
circular in outline and very convex with an elongate reddish 
area on the back and radiating black lines along the margin. 

The edge of the scale is slightly ridged 
(Fig. 250). Individuals vary greatly in 
color from nearly pure black to orange- 
red. Growth is resumed in early spring, 
and by the last of May the females are 
about £ inch in length. Eggs are formed, 
and the minute straw-colored flattened young 
escape from beneath the old scale and es- 
tablish themselves on the leaves. Hatch- 
ing continues for a period of about 6 weeks 
during June and July. Winged males ap- 
pear during August and fertilize the females ; 
the latter soon migrate to the bark of the 
smaller branches, where the winter is spent. There is only one 
generation a year. 
Treatment. 

Recent experiments in Maryland have shown that this scale 
may be readily controlled by thorough spraying with miscible 
oils at the usual dilution for dormant trees. When used in the 
fall there is danger of killing the fruit-buds, but if the treatment 
is deferred until spring, when the tree has resumed its activities, 
this difficulty can be in great measure obviated. The use of 
lime-sulfur for this scale is of little or no value. Summer appli- 
cations directed against the newly hatched active young have 
been found impracticable in commercial practice. Although the 
young are easily killed by applications of kerosene emulsion 
or nicotine extracts, so many sprayings are necessary to cover 
the long hatching period of at least six weeks that the expense 
becomes prohibitive in large orchards. 



Fig. 250. — The 
terrapin scale on a 
peach branch. En- 
larged. 



PEACH INSECTS 295 

References 

Murtfeldt, U. S. Bur. Ent. Bull. 32, O. S., pp. 41-44. 1894. 

Pergande, U. S. Bur. Ent. Bull. 18, pp. 26-29. 1898. 

U. S. Bur. Ent. Circ. 88. 1907. 

Md. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 123, pp. 153-160. 1907. 

Md. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 149. 1910. 

The European peach scale {Lecanium persicaz' Fabricius), 
according to Sanders, has been reported in this country only 
from California under the name Lecanium magnoliarum Cock- 
er ell. 

The earlier accounts of L. persicce in our economic literature 
usually refer to the terrapin scale. 

The White Peach Scale 
Aulacaspis pentagona Targioni Tozzetti 

In the Southern states and in California the peach and re- 
lated fruits are subject to the attack of a whitish scale frequently 
known as the West Indian peach scale. This insect is widely 
distributed throughout the warmer regions of the world, occur- 
ring in Ceylon, India, China, the West Indies, South Africa, 
Brazil, etc. Its range of food-plants is extensive, but in this 
country it has become troublesome only on the peach, plum, 
prune, cherry and apricot. As a peach pest it has been known 
to be fully as injurious as the San Jose scale. 

The full-grown female scale is about T V inch in diameter, dirty 
white in color and nearly circular in outline ; the yellowish or 
brownish exuvium is not generally central, although it is some- 
times nearly so. The elongate, pure white male scales have a 
tendency to occur in close clusters usually at the base of the 
branch or trunk. The winter is passed by the mature females ; 
in the latitude of Washington they begin egg-laying about 
May 1. The eggs hatch in a few days and after a short period 



296 FRUIT INSECTS 

of active life the young settle down and the protective scale is 
formed. By the middle of June the females become mature, and 
about that time the red-bodied, transparent-winged males 
emerge. The second brood of eggs is laid the last of June, and 
a third at the end of August ; females of the last brood become 
mature in late October, in which condition hibernation takes 
place. There are thus three generations at Washington, while 
in Florida and Georgia there are said to be four broods. 

Treatment. 

Lime-sulfur as used against the San Jose scale has been found 
satisfactory for the control of this pest. The use of dilute lime- 
sulfur for the control of brown rot would do much to prevent 
the young from establishing themselves on the bark. The 
young may also be killed by summer applications of whale-oil 
soap, kerosene emulsion or tobacco extracts. 

References 

Riley and Howard, Insect Life, VI, pp. 287-295. 1894. 
Fla. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 61, pp. 492-498. 1902. 



The Green June-beetle 
Allorhina nitida Linnaeus 

In the Southern states and along the Atlantic coast as 
far north as Long Island these large velvety green beetles 

(Fig. 251) are 
sometimes very 
troublesome in 
orchards and vine- 
yards. The fe- 
males are an inch 

Fig. 251. --The green June beetle resting on earthen 0r * eSS m * en gth 

cocoon. Knight photo. and usually have 




PEACH INSECTS 



297 







the sides of the thorax and 
wing-covers brownish-yel- 
low ; the males are smaller 
and have the yellowish 
markings more diffuse. 

The beetles frequently 
appear in large numbers 
about the time the fruit is 
ripening and cause much 
damage by breaking the 

skin of the fruit, after which they feed on the juicy pulp 
within. The large, thick-bodied dirty white grubs (Fig. 253), 
nearly two inches in length, from which the beetles develop, 
live in the ground and feed on decaying vegetable matter, not 
on the roots of living plants, as was formerly supposed. They 
are especially abundant in heavily manured gardens, about 



Fig. 252. — The green June beetle, 
empty cocoon and one containing a newly 
transformed beetle. 





Fig. 253. — Full-grown grubs of the green Fig. 254. — Pupa of the green 
June beetle. June beetle in its cocoon. Knight 

photo. 

manure heaps and in fields that have been heavily mulched 
with straw. When they come to the surface, as is often the case 
after heavy rains, they have the curious habit of crawling on 
their back, advancing with a wave-like motion of the ridges 
of the body, which are armed dorsally with short, stiff bristles. 
The female beetle deposits her white, nearly spherical eggs 



298 FRUIT INSECTS 

an inch or two in the ground. The young grubs burrow through 
the soil, feeding on the humus, and become only partly grown 
by winter. They complete their growth the following spring, 
pupate in earthen cells (Figs. 252 and 254) in the ground, and the 
beetles begin to emerge in early summer, becoming most abun- 
dant during August in the latitude of Kentucky. They attack 
peaches, pears, plums, grapes and other fruits. Corn in the 
milk is often injured. 

Treatment. 

As it is impracticable to use arsenical sprays on ripening 
fruit, it has been suggested that the beetles might be attracted 
to piles of overripe and decaying fruit beneath the trees and 
there poisoned with Paris green or arsenate of lead. In prac- 
tice this method is of little value because the majority of the 
beetles prefer to feed on the fruit still hanging on the tree. 
Thorough and repeated hand-picking of the beetles as fast as 
they appear is the safest and surest way of protecting a crop. 
Manure piles should not be permitted in the vicinity of orchards 
where the pest is troublesome, and the use of mineral fertilizers 
is suggested as a means of decreasing the number of grubs. 

References 

Md. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 23, pp. 77-81. 1893. 
U. S. Bur. Ent. Bull. 10, pp. 20-26. 1898. 
Ky. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 116, pp. 67-73. 1904. 

In the Southwest a closely related beetle (Allorhina mutabilis 
Gory) causes similar injury to ripening fruits. As far as known, 
its habits and life history do not materially differ from those of 
the last species, and the same remedial measures are suggested. 

Reference 
N. Mex. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 5, p. 10. 1892. 

The brown fruit-chafer (Euphoria inda Linnaeus) and its 
near relative (E. melancholica Gory) are both known to at- 



PEACH INSECTS 299 

tack ripening fruits. Of the life history of the latter, little is 
known. The adult of the former is a yellowish-brown beetle, 
\ inch or more in length, with its wing-covers sprinkled all over 
with small, irregular black dots. The beetles appear in late 
summer and feed on the pollen of flowers, ripe fruit and corn in 
the milk. They go into hibernation and very early the next 
spring may be seen flying close to the ground with a loud, buzzing 
sound. The female deposits her white, nearly spherical eggs 
in the vicinity of manure heaps, in piles of rotting sod and other 
decaying vegetable matter. When full-grown the larva is some - 
what over an inch in length, strongly curved and dirty white 
in color ; the posterior part of the body has a dull leaden hue 
from the contents of the alimentary canal. It differs from the 
white grub (Lachnosterna) in its shorter and more robust form, 
in the shorter legs and smaller head, and in its habit of crawling 
upon its back. In July the larvae pupate within earthen cocoons 
of a somewhat angular external form. The beetles emerge 
during August and September. There is only one generation 
a year. 

Hand-picking of the beetles is apparently the most practicable 
means of controlling this insect when it is found working on ripe 
fruit or on green corn. 

References 

Slingerland, Can. Ent. XXIX, pp. 50-52. 1897. 
U. S. Bur. Ent. Bull. 19, pp. 67-74. 1899. 

Peach Stop-back 

From Missouri to Alabama, Virginia and northward, nursery- 
men often experience serious losses from an obscure trouble 
with peach nursery stock, commonly known as stop-back or 
peach-sting. When the budded trees are 18 inches to 2 feet 
in height, the terminal bud turns brown, withers and dies. 
The stopping of growth of the main branch forces the develop- 




Fig. 255. — Tips of peach nursery trees stung by the tarnished plant-bug. 




Fig. 256. — A nearer view of injured peach tips, 

300 



PEACH INSECTS 



301 



ment of the laterals, which in turn have their tips killed in a 
similar way ; the result is that the tree takes on a bushy form 
(Fig. 257) instead of developing a long, straight upright. 
Such trees cannot be sold as 
first-class stock. The loss from 
this trouble in one New York 
nursery, amounted in a single 
year to $15,000. 

The cause of peach stop-back 
has been attributed to a species 
of thrips (Euthrips tritici Fitch), 
to the peach bud-mite (Tar- 
sonemus waitei Banks) and to 
the tarnished plant-bug (Lygus 
pratensis Linnaeus). It is quite 
certain that in New York, Vir- 
ginia and Missouri, at least, the 
latter is responsible for the in- 
jury. 

The tarnished plant-bug is 
discussed on page 375. In New 
York the adults emerge from 
hibernation in March or April 
and pass through at least one 
generation on various weeds be- 
fore attacking the peach. The 
last of June or first of July the 
adults migrate into the blocks killed ^ the „ tarnished plant-bug, 

„ a condition known as stop-back. 

ol nursery stock, where they Leonard photo. 

puncture the terminal buds and 

injure them, as described above (Figs. 255 and 256). While 

a few eggs are deposited in the tender tips or in the leaf 

petioles, very few nymphs are found on peach, practically 

all of the injury being done by the adults. After three or 




Fig. 257. — A peach nursery tree 
on which the terminal buds have been 



302 FRUIT INSECTS 

four weeks the bugs leave the peach, going to wild carrot, wild 
aster and other weeds. They remain on apple stock for a 
much longer period. 

The control of the tarnished plant-bug on nursery stock is 
still an unsolved problem. The fact that the injury is caused 
by the winged adults, and not by the nymphs, makes it imprac- 
ticable to kill them with a contact spray. They are very shy 
and active insects that take flight at the slightest alarm. Dur- 
ing the daytime they leave the trees several feet in advance of 
the spray. The terminal shoots of the nursery trees might 
be protected by inclosing them in paper bags. 

References 

U. S. Bur. Ent. Bull. 97, Pt. VI. 1912. 

Back and Price, Jour. Ec. Ent. V, pp. 329-334. 1912. 

Haseman, Jour. Ec. Ent. VI, pp. 237-240. 1913. 

Other Peach Insects 

Green fruit-worms : apple, p. 39. 

Bud-moth : apple, p. 42. 

Oblique-banded leaf-roller : apple, p. 65. 

Leaf-crumpler : apple, p. 68. 

Apple-tree tent-caterpillar: apple, p. 112. 

Forest tent-caterpillar: apple, p. 119. 

Climbing cutworms : apple, p. 138. 

San Jose scale : apple, p. 162. 

Scurfy scale : apple, p. 176. 

Flat-headed apple-tree borer : apple, p. 194. 

Twig-pruner : apple, p. 200. 

Twig-girdler i apple, p. 202. 

Flea-beetles : apple, p. 203. 

Clover-mite : apple, p. 206. 

Eye-spotted apple-twig borer : apple, p. 209. 

New York weevil : apple, p. 210. 

Pear thrips : pear, p. 223. 

Howard scale : pear, p. 234. 

European pear scale : pear, p. 234. 

Plum curculio : plum, p. 243. 



PEACH INSECTS 303 

Plum plant-louse : plum, p. 257. 
Rusty brown plum aphis : plum, p. 259. 
European fruit lecanium: plum, p. 261. 
Plum pulvinaria : plum, p. 264. 
Red-spider : raspberry, p. 315. 
Walnut scale : currant, p. 360. 
Grape-cane borer : grape, p. 423. 
Imbricated snout-beetle : strawberry, p. 371. 



CHAPTER IX 



CHERRY INSECTS 



The insects of the greatest commercial importance to the 
cherry grower are the plum curculio (p. 243), the cherry fruit 
flies, the cherry aphis, the pear slug (p. 214) and on the sweet 
cherries the San Jose scale. Cherry trees are also subject to 
the attack of the fruit-tree bark-beetle (p. 277). 



The Cherry Fruit-flies 

Rhagoletis cingulata Loew and R. fausta Osten Sacken 

Most wormy cherries in the United States and Canada are 
caused by the grub of the plum curculio (p. 243), but through- 
out the northern 
United States and 
Canada there occur 
two closely related 
species of fruit-flies 
whose maggots 
sometimes infest 
from one fourth to 
two thirds of the 
ripening fruits. Un- 
fortunately, there 
is little external 
„ _ ^ . . , , ., , , .. evidence of the 

Fig. 258. — Dorsal and side view of the cherry fruit- 
fly maggot, R. cingulata (x 7|). Work of these 

304 




CHEERY INSECTS 



305 






mk& 



fruit-flies in cherries at picking time, and often the fairest- 
looking fruits contain the maggots which the housewife may 
discover at canning 
time, or in the bot- 
tom of a dish of 
luscious cherries 
left over from a 
previous meal. 
The species which 

first attracted atten- FlG - 259 - ~~ Cherries infested with fruit-fly maggots. 

tion by its ravages was R. cingulata. The full-grown light 
yellowish-white maggot of this species is about \ of an inch 
in length and scarcely distinguishable from the apple maggot 
(Fig. 258). There is but a single generation of this cherry 

fruit-fly annually, the maggots 
working in the cherries mostly 
during June, but some may be 





Fig. 260. — Cherry cut open and 
showing a maggot near the pit. 



Fig. 261. — Puparia of the cherry fruit- 
fly (X 9). 



found even in August. The infested cherries do not drop, but 
finally a rotting and sinking in of a portion of the fruit results 
from the work of the maggots (Fig. 259) . When full-grown the 
maggots leave the cherries, go into the ground about an inch 
and change to brownish puparia (Fig. 261) which hibernate. 
The adult insects or fruit-flies begin to emerge about the middle 



306 



FRUIT INSECTS 




Fig. 



262. — The cherry fruit-fly, 
R. cingulata (x5f). 



of June and may be found on the trees during the next two 
months. They are pretty little flies, considerably smaller than 
a house-fly, and have their wings crossed by four blackish 
bands (Fig. 262) . The body is black, with lateral borders of 

thorax light yellow, and 
the caudal borders of 
the abdominal segments 
whitish; the head and 
legs are yellowish- 
brown. These flies stick 
their dirty yellow, elon- 
gate eggs through the 
skin of the ripening cher- 
ries, and the maggots, 
which doubtless hatch in 
a few days, revel in the juicy flesh for 3 or 4 weeks, soon forming 
a rotting cavity near the pit. Rarely does more than one maggot 
infest the same cherry (Fig. 260). Many of the maggots are 
nearly full-grown about picking-time and go to the consumer or 
cannery. Many emerge 
from the fruits and 
change to puparia in 
the bottom of the 
baskets, and may be 
carried in this way to 
new localities. 

This fruit-fly may at- 
tack many varieties of 
cherries, whether sweet 
or sour, early or late. 

The Morello and Montmorency are varieties often the worst 
infested. The insect may also work in plums and prunes. 

Quite recently it has been discovered that a second species, 
R. fausta, is responsible for a large part of the injury formerly 




Fig. 263. — The cherry fruit-fly, 
R. fausta (x 5^). 



CHERRY INSECTS 307 

attributed to cingulata. It apparently has a somewhat more 
northern range than that species. In their habits, life history 
and character of the injury inflicted, the two species are very 
similar. In New York the flies of R. fausta (Fig. 263) appear 
in early June, but do not begin egg-laying until about two weeks 
later. During this period they may be observed resting on the 
foliage and lapping up drops of moisture or feeding on the honey- 
dew secreted by the cherry aphis. The maggots of R. fausta 
are similar in shape and size to those of R. cingulata, but are 
distinctly more yellow in color ; the puparia, moreover, are of 
a darker brown color than in that species. 

Control. 

Experiments in New York have shown that the injury from 
the cherry fruit-flies may be controlled by sprinkling the foliage 
with sweetened arsenate of lead at the first appearance of the 
flies in early June. Satisfactory results have been obtained 
by using arsenate of lead, 5 pounds in 100 gallons of water, 
sweetened with 3 gallons of cheap molasses. A pint of this 
mixture is sufficient for a tree of moderate size. In case rains 
occur, it may be found necessary to make additional applica- 
tions. The experience of commercial growers also shows that 
the sweetening of the poisoned spray is unnecessary and that 
this pest may be controlled by two applications of arsenate of 
lead, 4 pounds in 100 gallons, made during the time while the 

flies are emerging. 

References 

Cornell Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 172. 1899. 
U. S. Bur. Ent. Bull. 44, pp. 70-75. 
Cornell Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 325. 1912. 

The Cherry Fruit-sawfly 

Hoplocampa cookei Clarke 

In Oregon and California young cherries are often infested 
by the larva of a small blackish sawfly which eats out the kernel 



308 



FRUIT INSECTS 



of the pit. In one orchard 80 per cent of the fruit was injured 

in this way. 
The adult sawflies appear on the trees in early spring, and 

the female inserts her smooth, whitish, slightly kidney-shaped 

egg in one of the sepals or in the upper part of the calyx cup just 

before the blossoms open. The 
eggs hatch in about five days, 
or just after the petals have 
fallen. After feeding for a short 
time on the tissues surrounding 
the egg cavity, the young larva 
burrows to the center of the 
fruit and eats out the kernel ; 
the cherry soon withers and the 
larva leaves it, only to enter a 
second or third cherry in which 
it feeds on the kernel or, after 
the stone is hardened, on the 
pulp surrounding it. The larva 
becomes full-grown in about 24 
days, descends to the ground, 
where at a depth of from 3 to 
7 inches it constructs a tough 
parchment-like cocoon, within 
which it remains in the larval 
condition, pupating some time 
There is only one brood an- 




Fig. 264. — Nest of the cherry- 
tree tortrix with empty pupa skins 
protruding. 



after the winter rains set in. 
nually. 

Control. 

No satisfactory means of control have been devised. 
Thorough cultivation of the soil would doubtless destroy many 
of the cocoons. Early in the morning the adults are usually 
sluggish and can be killed with distillate-oil emulsion and to- 
bacco extract as used against the pear thrips. Attempts to 



CHERRY INSECTS 



309 



kill the larva with arsenate of lead have not given satisfactory 

results. 

Reference 

U. S. Bur. Ent. Bull. 116, Pt. III. 1913. 



The Cherry-tree Tortrix 
Ar chips cerasivorana Fitch 

In June and July the 
ends of the branches of 
both the wild and culti- 
vated cherry are often seen 
inclosed in large, pointed 
silken nests (Fig. 264). 
Within each nest there 
lives a colony of lemon- 
yellow larvae, about f inch 
in length when full-grown, 
all the offspring of a single 
ochre-yellow moth. As the 
larvae increase in size the FlG 2 65 
nest becomes filled with 
large, dark-colored masses of excrement webbed together with 
silk (Fig. 265). The larvae mature early in July and pupate 

inside the nest. 
When about to 
transform, in the 
latter part of July 
in New York, the 
pupae work their 
way out of the nest, 
clinging to it only 

Fig. 266. — The cherry-tree tortrix moth (x 2). by the hooks at 




- A mass of excrement from in- 
terior of nest with pupa skins attached. 




310 



FRUIT INSECTS 




the end of the body. When the moths emerge, 
empty pupa cases are left projecting from the 
nest. The moths (Fig. 266) expand from f to 
1J inches ; the front wings are bright ochre- 
yellow, marked with irregular brownish spots 
and numerous transverse bands of a pale leaden 
blue. The eggs are deposited 
in flattened masses on the 
smaller branches and are pro- 
tected by a gluey covering 
(Figs. 267 and 268). 

This insect rarely becomes 
troublesome on cultivated 
cherries. The webs should be 
cut out and burned. 



Fig. 267. — Egg 
mass of the cherry- 
tree tortrix with a 
moth resting on a 
cherry branch. 



Reference 

Cornell Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 23, 
pp. 113-115. 1890. 




Fig. 268. — Egg- 
mass enlarged. 



The Cherry Plant-louse 

Myzus cerasi Fabricius 

This blackish plant-louse very generally infests the cherry 
both in Europe, in the United States and Canada, east of 
the Rocky Mountains; it also occurs in California. Sweet 
cherries are more liable to injury than the sour varieties ; this 
is sometimes strikingly shown where both kinds are grown to- 
gether in nurseries (Fig. 271). The sweet cherries may have 
the leaves badly curled and the new growth stunted, while sour 
cherries growing in the next row show little or no injury. 

The shining black winter eggs are found attached to the bark 
of the smaller branches, mostly around the buds. They hatch 
about the time the buds open, and the stem-mothers found 



CHERRY INSECTS 



311 



colonies of wingless females (Fig. 269) which reproduce with 
wonderful rapidity, so that within a few weeks the tips of the 

new growth and the under side of 
the leaves are thickly covered 
with the lice. The leaves become 
curled, the tips of the branches 





Fig. 269. — The cherry aphis, wing- Fig. 270. — The cherry aphis, winged 
less viviparous female, enlarged. viviparous female, enlarged. 

cease growing and in severe cases the fruit may be attacked and 
drop. Nursery stock is especially liable to be injured. 







Fig. 271. — Sweet cherry nursery trees badly infested with the cherry aphis. 



312 FRUIT INSECTS 

As the feeding quarters become crowded, winged forms (Fig. 
270) are produced; whether they merely fly to other cherry- 
trees or establish summer colonies on other food-plants is un- 
settled. In Colorado a few lice at least remain on the cherry 
throughout the season. No alternate food-plant has been 
found. Sexual forms are produced, and the winter eggs are 
deposited in September and October. 

Treatment. 

This insect is not difficult to control by spraying with kero- 
sene emulsion, whale-oil soap solution or tobacco extract, pro- 
vided the work is done as soon as the lice appear and before 
the leaves become curled. On nursery stock the lice attack 
and curl the leaves on the tips of the young trees where it is 
impossible to hit them with a spray. In such cases it has been 
found practicable to dip the infested tips in a solution of whale- 
oil soap, 1 pound in 7 gallons of water. The solution is carried 
in a pail, and the tips of the young trees are carefully bent over 
and held in the liquid long enough to wet all the lice. 

References 

Lintner, 5th Rept. N. Y. State Ent., pp. 253-257. 1889. 

Ohio Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. Tech. Ser., Vol. I, No. 2, pp. 111-113. 1890. 

N. Y. (Geneva) Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 136, p. 598. 1897. 

Col. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 133, pp. 42-44. 1908. 



The Cherry Scale or Forbes' Scale 
Aspidiotus forbesi Johnson 

Discovered in Illinois in 1896, this scale insect has since been 
found in widely separated localities throughout the United 
States. Cherry trees, both wild and cultivated, seem to be 
its favorite food-plants, -the trunks, branches and sometimes 
the leaves and fruits being attacked. It also occurs on apple, 
apricot, pear, plum, quince and currant. Externally the 



CHEBBY INSECTS 



313 



mature, nearly circular, dark grayish female scales (Fig. 272) 
are indistinguishable from Putnam's scale or the European fruit- 
scale, but the reddish-orange, nearly central exuvial spot gives 
it quite a different appearance from the San Jose scale. The 
cherry scale winters in a half- 
grown condition in Illinois, and 
it is apparently both oviparous 
and ovoviviparous, the young 
beginning to emerge early in 
May, and eggs and young oc- 
curring as late as the middle of 
June. Two broods are pro- 
duced annually in Illinois, the 
young of the second generation 
appearing in August and Sep- 
tember. Possibly a third brood 
occurs farther south. Seven 

minute parasites have been bred from this cherry scale, and 
the twice-stabbed ladybird beetles and their grubs feed upon it. 
Thorough applications of the winter washes as recommended 
for the San Jose scale readily control this scale. 




Fig. 272. — The cherry scale, males and 
females. Redrawn after Joutel. 



Other Cherry Insects 

Bud-moth: apple, p. 42. 

Fruit-tree leaf-roller : apple, p. 62. 

Oblique-banded leaf-roller : apple, p. 65. 

Leaf-crumpler : apple, p. 68. 

Canker-worm : apple, p. 77. 

California tussock-moth : apple, p. 104. 

Oriental moth : apple, p. 106. 

Forest tent-caterpillar: apple, p. 119. 

Yellow-necked apple caterpillar : apple, p. 123. 

Red-humped apple caterpillar : apple, p. 125. 

Climbing cutworms : apple, p. 138. 

Buffalo tree-hopper : apple, p. 160. 

San Jose scale : apple, p. 162. 



314 FRUIT INSECTS 

Putnam's scale : apple, p. 179. 

Twig-girdler : apple, p. 202. 

Flea-beetles : apple, p. 203. 

Clover-mite : apple, p. 206. 

Ring-legged tree bug : apple, p. 208. 

New York weevil : apple, p. 210. 

Pear slug : pear, p. 214. 

Plum curculio : plum, p. 243. 

Plum web-spinning sawfly : plum, p. 254. 

European fruit-tree scale : plum, p. 260. 

Peach-tree borer : peach, p. 266. 

Pacific peach-tree borer : peach, p. 275. 

Lesser peach-tree borer : peach, p. 276. 

Fruit-tree bark-beetle : peach, p. 277. 

Peach bark-beetle : peach, p. 282. 

White peach scale : peach, p. 295. 

Green June-beetle : peach, p. 296. 

Walnut scale : currant, p. 360. 

Imbricated snout-beetle : strawberry, p. 375. 



CHAPTER X 
RASPBERRY, BLACKBERRY AND DEWBERRY INSECTS 

These fruits are closely related botanically and are in general 
subject to the attack of the same insects; their enemies are 
here treated together for the sake of convenience. As a rule 
the raspberry and blackberry are not so liable to serious attack 
as other fruits, and spraying is only occasionally necessary. 

The Red-spider 

Tetranychus bimaculatus Harvey 

The red-spider is a minute mite (Fig. 273), about -^ inch in 
length, varying in color from pale greenish-yellow to dark crim- 
son-red and usually marked with two dark spots at the side of 
the body. It has long been known as a greenhouse pest, where 
it attacks a great variety of plants ; it sometimes injures peach, 
raspberry, currant and rose in the open. It thrives in a warm, 
dry atmosphere and is most abundant out of doors in seasons 
of drought. 

Red-spiders are usually found on the under side of the leaves, 

where they live under the protection of a very delicate silken 

web ; in feeding they break the epidermis of the leaf and suck 

out the sap, causing the foliage to turn yellowish in spots. 

The female deposits her minute, elongate, transparent eggs 

on the surface of the leaf. The young mites resemble the adults, 

but are lighter in color and have only six legs instead of eight. 

There are several generations a season in the open, while in 

greenhouses breeding is continuous the year round. The adults 

315 



316 



FBUIT INSECTS 



hibernate in the ground or beneath suitable shelter and crawl 
back to the trees in early spring. (See also page 208.) 
Treatment. 

Red-spiders may be controlled in greenhouses by the use 
of sulfur, either as a dust or in water, or by persistent spraying 
with water, taking care to hit the under side of the leaves. 

Use lots of force and little water, to avoid 
drenching the beds. 

When infesting plants in the open, the 
mites may be destroyed by dusting with 
sulfur or by spraying with a mixture of 1 
pound of finely powdered sulfur in 3 gallons 
of water, in which a little soap has been 
dissolved. The sulfur settles quickly, and 
the mixture should be agitated constantly 
during the spraying. It will help to keep 
the sulfur in suspension if it is first made 
into a paste with water containing J of 1 
per cent of glue. The boiled lime-sulfur 
solution cannot be used on raspberries, as 
it is likely to cause foliage injury. 

Excellent results in the control of red- 
spider have been reported in California 
from the use of a flour paste prepared as 
follows : 

Mix a cheap grade of wheat flour with cold water, making a 
thin batter, without lumps; or wash the flour through a wire 
screen with a stream of cold water. Dilute until there is one 
pound of flour in each gallon of mixture. Cook until a paste 
is formed, stirring constantly to prevent caking or burning. 
Add sufficient water to make up for evaporation. For use, 
add 8 gallons of this stock solution to 100 gallons of water. 
When mixed in the spray tank flour paste has a tendency to 
settle and in order to do satisfactory work agitation is necessary. 




Fig. 273. — The red 
spider. Redrawn after 
MissM. A. Palmer(x66). 



RASPBERRY, BLACKBERRY AND DEWBERRY INSECTS 317 



References 
Me. Agr. Exp. Sta. Kept, for 1892, pp. 133-146. 1893. 
Col. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 152. 1909. 
U. S. Bur. Ent. Circ. 166. 1913. 

The Blackberry Leaf-miner 
Metallus rubi Forbes 
The leaves of blackberries and dewberries are often injured 
to a considerable extent in the Eastern states and Canada 
from Delaware and 
Missouri northward 
by the larva of a 
small, nearly black 
sawfly, about £ inch 
in length (Fig. 274). 
The larvae feed be- 
tween the two layers 
of the leaf, excavat- 
ing a rather large, 
irregular blotched 
mine ; three or four 




Fig. 274. — The blackberry leaf-miner, adult. 

larged. 



En- 



mmes may occur in 

a single leaf (Fig. 

276). The injured portion of the leaf turns brown and dies; 

in severe cases the whole field has the appearance of having been 

singed by fire. 

The adults appear in late May or early June, and the female 
inserts her white, flattened egg into the tissue of the leaf through 
a puncture in the upper surface (Fig. 277). The egg lies next 
to the lower epidermis beneath a low blister about ^ inch in 
diameter. At the time of hatching the larva has a very large 
head in proportion to its size. When full-grown it is about 
| inch in length, and greenish-white in color with brownish 
markings (Fig. 275). 



318 



FRUIT INSECTS 



Fig. 275. — 



In New York the 
majority of the 
larvae of the first 
brood become full- 
grown in July; in 
Delaware they are 
nearly a month 
earlier. They go 
into the ground an 
inch or so to trans- 
form, the second 
brood adults ap- 
pearing in August 
in New York. There 
are two apparently 

Full-grown larvae of the blackberry leaf- full broods in 

miner (x 6f). Delaware ; in New 





Fig. 276. — Mines in a blackberry leaf. 




RASPBERRY, BLACKBERRY AND DEWBERRY INSECTS 319 

York the second brood is probably only partial. The winter 
is passed in the larval or pupal condition in the ground. 

A satisfactory 
method of control- 
ling this insect has 
not been worked out, 
but it would be worth 
while to try to kill 
the larvae in their 
burrows by spraying 
with " Black Leaf 
40" tobacco extract, 

1 nint in 1 00 o-qllnncj FlG> 277. — Egg-blisters of the blackberry leaf- 

l pint in iuu gallons miner( one opened t0 show the egg (x6) 

of water, to which a 

little soap has been added, 2 pounds in 50 gallons. This 
mixture has been found of value against a similar larva mining 
the leaves of the European elm. 

Reference 
Del. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 87, pp. 10-15. 1910. 

The Raspberry Sawfly 

Monophadnus rubi Harris 

In the Northern states and Canada from Iowa eastward the 
larva of this sawfly often causes serious injury to the raspberry 
and also attacks the blackberry and dewberry to a slight extent. 
The adult is a black, thick-bodied, four-winged fly about J inch 
in length ; the female has a broad, yellowish-white band across 
the abdomen. The flies appear in May, and the female deposits 
her eggs singly between the two layers of the leaf near a prom- 
inent vein. They are placed in position through a small 
incision in the lower epidermis of the leaf made by the saw-like 
ovipositor of the insect. When first laid, the egg is white, long, oval 



320 FRUIT INSECTS 

in form, obtusely rounded at the ends, and is about ^ inch in 
length ; before hatching it becomes nearly pear-shaped and 
increases in length to over -^ inch. The leaf tissue above the 
egg becomes dry and somewhat withered and finally turns to a 
light yellow color, giving the leaf a characteristic spotted 
appearance. 

The eggs hatch in a week or ten days. At first the larvae 
feed on the outer epidermis only, but as they grow larger eat 
out irregular holes through the leaf, and finally leave only the 
larger veins. When sufficiently abundant to devour all the 
foliage, they often attack the tender bark of the new growth. 
They also feed to a slight extent on the blossom buds and im- 
mature fruits. 

The full-grown larvae are about f inch in length, fight green 
in color and covered with spine-bearing tubercles arranged in 
double transverse rows. They become mature in about ten 
days, and then crawl to the ground, where at a depth of two or 
three inches they construct oblong, nearly cylindrical cocoons 
composed of a dark brown mucilaginous substance mixed with 
strands of silk and particles of earth. The larva remains within 
the cocoon in a quiescent condition, known as the prepupa, 
until the following May, when it transforms to a pale green 
pupa, and the adults emerge in a few days. 

Treatment. 

If the soil is well cultivated and free from weeds, the larvae 
may be brushed from the bushes during the heat of the day 
and will perish without being able to regain their food-plant. 
Pine branches are often used for this purpose. The larvae 
are easily killed by arsenical sprays, but as there is some danger 
in their use on ripening fruit, it is better to use hellebore, 1 
ounce in 1 gallon of water. 

Reference 
N. Y. (Geneva) Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 150. 1898. 



RA SPBEBR F, BLA CKBERB Y AND BE WBERR Y INSECTS 321 

r 

The Raspberry Webworm 

Pamphilius fletcheri MacGillivray 

This insect has become troublesome only in New Brunswick, 
and little is known of its life history. The smooth, bright green 
larvae, half an inch in length when full-grown, web together the 
terminal leaves of the raspberry, making a tent within which 
they feed. The adult sawfly is a little less than f inch in length ; 
the head and thorax are black, marked with white ; in the 
female the front third of the abdomen is black and the rest 
reddish-yellow ; in the male the abdomen is black with a broad 
yellowish band across the middle. The adults appear about 
the middle of June, and the larva? develop during the next few 
weeks. The eggs are unknown. The winter is probably passed 
by the larvae in the ground. 

This rather uncommon pest can be controlled by persistent 
hand-picking of infested leaves or by dusting the plants with 
hellebore soon after the larvae hatch, before they have webbed 
the leaves together. . 

Reference 

Fletcher, Rept. Ent. Bot. for 1899, p. 180. 1900. 

The Raspberry Leaf-roller 

Exartema permundanum Clemens 

The terminal leaves of the raspberry are sometimes webbed 
together in May and early June into a more or less twisted 
mass by a small dark green larva with a pitchy-black head 
and thoracic shield. This caterpillar is sometimes destructive 
to strawberries by webbing together the clusters of flowers and 
flower buds. When full-grown the larva usually folds over a 
part of a leaf, forming a cavity within which it pupates. The 
moths appear in about two weeks ; they have a wing expanse 



322 FRUIT INSECTS 

of about one half inch; the fore wings are dull yellowish or 
greenish-brown with irregular lighter markings crossing the 
wing obliquely; the hind wings are ashy brown. The eggs 
are unknown. There are probably two broods annually, the 
winter being passed in the egg state. While generally dis- 
tributed over the Eastern states, this insect rarely causes notice- 
able damage ; it also feeds on the wild blackberry, hazel, meadow 
sweet and hickory. 

In small plantings this insect can be controlled by hand- 
picking the infested tips and crushing the larvae. On a larger 
scale it would be more economical to use some arsenical spray 
when the larva? first appear in the spring. 

References 

Comstock, Rept. U. S. Com. Agr., 1880, p. 267. 
Packard, 5th Rept. U. S. Ent. Com., p. 312. 1890. 
Ohio Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 45, p. 181. 1893. 



The Blackberry Psyllid 

Trioza tripunctata Fitch 

This jumping plant-louse, a near relative of the pear psylla, 
occurs in the Atlantic states from Virginia to Maine. It has 
been recorded as injuring the cultivated blackberry in New 
Jersey and Maine, and on Long Island. Its native food-plant 
is the wild blackberry. Its reported occurrence on pine is 
doubtless purely accidental. 

The adult insect is about % inch in length; the body is 
yellowish-brown, the eyes dark brown and the wings marked 
by three yellowish-brown bands. The insect hibernates as an 
adult. The flies appear on the blackberry soon after growth 
starts in the spring and deposit their minute, light yellow eggs 
in the pubescence of the leaf petioles and young canes. On 
Long Island adults, eggs and newly hatched nymphs were 



RASPBERRY, BLACKBERRY AND DEWBERRY INSECTS 323 

observed the latter part of June. Both adults and nymphs 
puncture the leaves and tender canes with their piercing mouth 
parts and feed on the juices of the plant, causing the leaves to 
curl, also dwarfing and distorting the young canes. The 
minute, young nymphs are whitish or greenish-white in color ; 
the older nymphs are yellowish. They mature in early fall, 
and the adults go into hibernation. 

Little experimental work has been done in the control of 
this insect, but it is probable that some of the measures employed 
against the pear psylla would be found satisfactory. 

Reference 
N. . Y. (Geneva) Agr. Exp. Sta. 14th Rept. for 1895, pp. 619-623. 1896. 

The American Raspberry Beetle 

Byturus unicolor Say 

The red raspberry crop is sometimes severely injured locally 
in the eastern United States and Canada by this small, slightly 
hairy, light brown beetle, about \ inch in length. The beetles 
appear in May and begin feeding on the buds and tender leaves, 
and later attack the blossoms themselves. When the cluster 
of blossom buds is disclosed, they work their way in between 
them and eat holes into the buds. They also skeletonize the 
leaves to a considerable extent and feed on the stamens and 
pistils of the blossoms, often causing an almost total failure of 
the crop. 

Although the egg is unknown, it is probably deposited on 
the fruit, for the young grubs are found burrowing through the 
receptacle or lying upon its surface beneath the berry. When 
full-grown they are nearly white in color and about \ inch in 
length. When abundant many of the grubs adhere to the 
berry at picking time, making it necessary to carefully hand- 
pick the fruit intended for table use. Normally they fall to 



324 



FRUIT INSECTS 



the earth and hibernate as pupae under trash or in the soil near 
the surface. 

Treatment. 

Experiments conducted in Ohio have shown that this pest 

can be controlled by a thorough application of arsenate of lead, 

6 to 8 pounds to 100 gallons of water, made as the first beetles 

appear. Thorough shallow cultivation of the soil in the fall 

would doubtless destroy many of the pupae in their hibernating 

quarters. 

References 



Fitch, Trans. N. Y. State Agr. Soc. for 1870, pp. 358-360. 
Felt, 14th Rept. N. Y. State Ent., pp. 158-160. 1898. 
Ohio Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 202. 1909. 



1872. 




Fig. 278. — A tree- 
cricket ovipositing in 
a raspberry cane. 



The Negro-bug 

Corimelcena pulicaria Germar 

Blackberries, raspberries and strawberries 
often acquire an unpleasant flavor from 
having served as the feeding ground of a 
small black sucking bug. The adult is 
shiny black and has a white stripe on each 
side of the body ; it is about an eighth 
of an inch in length. The female deposits 
her orange-yellow, elongate, oval eggs singly 
on the leaves of the plant. They hatch 
in about sixteen days. The nymphs punc- 
ture the tender foliage as well as the fruit, 
sometimes causing a slight injury to the 
leaves. On berries, however, they are 
most troublesome because of the disgust- 
ing odor which they impart to the fruit. 
This insect is sometimes a serious celery 
pest. 



RASPBERRY, BLACKBERRY AND DEWBERRY INSECTS 325 

No satisfactory method of controlling negro bugs on berries 
has yet been devised. 



The Tree-cricket 

(Ecanthus nigricornis Walker 

Several species of tree-crickets occur abundantly in the 
eastern United States and Canada. These delicate, greenish- 




Fig. 279. — Tree-cricket egg-scars in raspberry canes, one cane split open to 

show the eggs. 

white, long-horned crickets become mature in late summer 
and the females deposit their eggs in punctures in the tissue of 
various plants. Injury to blackberry and raspberry canes is 
caused principally by the female of nigricornis. The eggs of 
this species are about J inch in length, cylindrical, slightly 
curved and chrome yellow in color, with the egg-cap cream- 



326 



FRUIT INSECTS 



colored. They are inserted (Fig. 278) in a row of punctures 
often two inches in length, each row on the average containing 
about 30 eggs and may have as many as 80 in a row (Figs. 279 
and 280) . The eggs hatch in May and June and the young tree 
crickets feed principally on aphids and other soft-bodied 
insects. 

The rows of punctures either kill the upper part of the cane 
or so weaken it as to prevent the development of the fruit. 
When very abundant, as is sometimes the case, the loss may 
be large. 

In the past there has been some confusion as to the identity 
of the species ovipositing in raspberry canes. This injury was 

formerly attributed 
to 0. niveus, but re- 
cent work at the 
GenevaExperiment 
Station has shown 
that 0. nigricornis 
is the real culprit 
and that 0. niveus deposits its eggs preferably in the bark 
of the smaller branches of apple and other trees (see p. 211). 

The tree-crickets injuring berry canes can be held in check 
by systematically collecting the canes containing the eggs at 
the time of pruning and destroying them. 

Reference 
Parrott, Jour. Ec. Ent. IV, pp. 216-218, pi. 6. 1911. 




Fig. 280. — Tree-cricket eggs enlarged. 



The Raspberry Cane-borer 

Oberea bimaculata Olivier 

This native American borer often causes considerable injury 
to the black and red raspberry and to the blackberry; its 
original food-plant was the wild raspberry. It is generally dis- 



RASPBERRY, BLACKBERRY AND DEWBERRY INSECTS 327 

tributed over the Northern states and Canada. The adult is a 
long-horned, slender-bodied beetle about half an inch in length 
(Fig. 284). It is of a deep black color except the prothorax, 
which is yellow, usually with two or three black spots on the 
upper surface. The beetles appear in June and the female 
deposits her eggs (Fig. 281) singly in the pith of the tender 




Fig. 281. — The raspberry cane-borer girdling a cane after oviposition. 



new growth about six inches from the tip of the cane. She 
first makes two rows of punctures encircling the cane about 
half an inch apart, and between them, but nearer the lower 
row, inserts the egg in a deep puncture directed upward (Figs. 
282 and 285). Sometimes the beetle girdles the cane spirally, 
and abandons the cane without ovipositing. The scars (Fig. 
283) of these imperfect girdles are common on blackberry. The 
egg is yellowish-white, elongate, nearly cylindrical, with rounded 
ends slightly curved, and is about yV inch in length. The 



328 



FRUIT INSECTS 





Fig. 282. — A raspberry cane girdled 
above and below the egg-puncture of the 
cane-borer. 



Fig. 283. — 
Scar of an im- 
perfect girdle of 
the raspberry 
cane-borer ; com- 
mon on black- 
berry. 



girdling of the cane causes the tip to wilt, and is supposed to 
protect the egg from being crushed by the rapidly growing 

tissue in which it lies. 

The eggs hatch in early July and 
the borer eats out a burrow towards 
the base of the cane, passing the 
winter in a partly grown condition 
only an inch or two below the girdle 




Fig. 284. — The 
cane-borer beetle 
Knight photo. 



raspberry 

(X 2f). Fig. 285 




Egg of the raspberry cane-borer 
in position ( x 3f ) . 



BASPBEBRY, BLACKBERBY AND DEWBEBRY INSECTS 329 

(Fig. 286). The second season it continues its burrow through 

what is now the bearing cane and usually kills it before the 

fruit matures. It reaches the base of the cane by fall and there 

passes the second winter in its burrow below the 

surface of the ground. The burrow winds through 

the pith and at frequent intervals an opening 

is made in the bark through which the larva 

casts forth its excrement. The larva pupates in 

its burrow the second spring after the laying of 

the egg and the beetle emerges in May and June. 

Treatment. 

The tips of the young canes in which the eggs 
are deposited soon wilt and are easily seen. As 
soon as noticed they should be cut off below the 
lower girdle and destroyed. Likewise when 
bearing canes are found infested with the borers 
they should be cut close to the ground and 
burned. This pest would probably be much 
more abundant were it not the common practice 
to cut out and burn all old canes after the crop 
has been picked, thus destroying all the nearly 

mature borers. 

References 




Fig. 286. — 
Raspberry 
cane-borer hi- 
bernating in a 
short burrow 
at the tip of 
a cane. 



Cornell Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 23, pp. 122-124. 1890. 
Ohio Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 96, pp. 20-22. 1898. 



The Raspberry Cane-maggot 

Phorbia rubivora Coquillett 

Black and red raspberries and blackberries are sometimes 
severely injured in the Northern states and Canada by a small 
white maggot which burrows in the new canes and kills them. 
It also occurs in western Washington. The parent fly (Fig. 
287) closely resembles the house fly, but is somewhat smaller. 



330 



FRUIT INSECTS 




Fig. 287. — Adult of the rasp- 
berry cane-maggot. Enlarged. 



On leaving the egg shell 
the young maggot crawls 
down the shoot for a short 
distance and then bur- 
rows its way into the pith. 
After tunneling about 
half the length of the 
shoot the maggot works 
its way nearly out to 
the bark and deftly con- 
tinues its tunnel around 
the shoot, thus girdling 
it from the inside (Fig. 
289). The part of the 
shoot above the girdle 
soon wilts, shrinks in size 
and droops over. Soon 
after the tip droops, a 



The flies appear in the latter 
part of April, when the new 
raspberry shoots are a few 
inches in height, and the female 
deposits her comparatively 
large, prettily sculptured, elon- 
gate white eggs loosely near the 
tip of the shoot in the crotch 
formed by the bases of the tip 
leaves (Fig. 288). How soon 
the eggs hatch is unknown, 
but it is doubtless in a few 
days. 




Fig. 288. — Egg of the raspberry cane-mag- 
got in position at the base of a leaf ( X 8) . 



RASPBERRY, BLACKBERRY AND DEWBERRY INSECTS 331 



dry rot sets in at the girdled point and the whole shoot usually 
dries up and dies. 

After checking the growth in May the maggot proceeds to 
burrow downward in the pith, usually reaching the base near 
the surface of the ground some time in June. In late June 
and early July the maggots, without leaving their burrows, 
transform to pupae 



j 



within the hard- 
ened dark brown 
larval skin or pu- 
parium. The 
adult, however, 
does not emerge 
till the following 
April, there being 
but one brood a 
year. 

Control. 

With a little 
watchfulness this 
raspberry pest can 
be easily checked. 

Its presence can be quickly detected in May, as its work is then 
very conspicuous. The remedy is simple. As soon as a droop- 
ing tip is seen, either pull up the shoot or cut it off several 
inches below the girdle and burn it. This method faithfully 
carried out throughout May will quickly check the pest. 
There is no possible chance of getting at the insect with a 
spray. Simply burn all infested shoots in May. 




Fig. 289. 



Raspberry shoots girdled by the cane- 
maggots. 



References 

Cornell Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 126, pp. 54-60. 
Wash. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 62. 1904. 



1897. 



332 



FRUIT INSECTS 




The Red-necked Cane-borer 

Agrilus ruficollis Fabricius 

The new canes of blackberry, dewberry and raspberry are 
often injured by the larva of a beetle which causes irregular 

swellings or galls from 
one to three inches 
in length. These 
galls are gradual en- 
largements of the 
cane and are char- 
acterized by a longi- 

Fig 290 — ^ ucn nal splitting of 
Beetle of the red- the bark (Fig. 293). 

borer e (x2f) ane " Infested canes either 

die or are so weak- 
ened as to prevent the develop- 
ment of the fruit. 

The parent beetle (Fig. 290) is 
about J inch in length; the wing- 
covers are black with a dull bluish 
reflection, and the thorax or " neck" FlG 291. — A beetle that 
is metallic coppery, reddish or brassy ; died because she was unable to 

,i 1 i- 11 1 .,1 1,. free her ovipositor after egg- 

tne head is black with metallic re- i ay i ng . Knight photo, 
flections. The beetles may be found 

on the berry bushes on bright days from the last of May 
till August, but are most abundant in June. The egg is in- 
serted in the bark near the base of a leaf on the new growth. 
Figure 291 shows a female beetle that died because she was 
unable to free her ovipositor after depositing the egg. The 
young larva burrows upward in the sapwood, passing around 
the stem in a spiral course from two to six times, thus girdling 
the cane and causing the gall (Fig. 293). The larva then bores 




RASPBERRY, BLACKBERRY AND DEWBERRY INSECTS 333 



into the pith and usually burrows upwards, hibernating in the 
pith several inches from the point of entrance. It is then a 
yellowish-white, slender, somewhat flattened grub, about f 







Fig. 292. — Full-grown red-necked cane-borer 
larvae (x 3). 



to f inch in length, with a brownish head 
(Fig. 292) ; the tip of the abdomen is pro- 
vided with two brown hooks. Early in 
the spring it completes its growth and 
transforms into a whitish pupa in an oval 
cell in the pith. The beetles emerge from 
May till July. 

This pest may be controlled by cutting 
out and burning all infested canes during the fall, winter or 
early spring. This work can be done best while pruning the 
bushes. All wild or neglected berry bushes in which the 
beetles may breed should be destroyed. 



Fig. 293. — A red 
raspberry cane showing 
the spiral course of the 
burrow ; the more nor- 
mal form of the gall on 
blackberry. 



References 

Smith, Ins. Life, IV, pp. 27-30. 1891. 

N. J. Agr. Exp. Sta. Spec. Bull. N., pp. 4-8. 1891. 

W. Va. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 15. 1891. 

Ohio Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 44, pp. 191-193. 1893. 



334 FRUIT INSECTS 



The Raspberry Horntail 
Hartigia abdominalis Cresson 

In California the tender tips of the young shoots of the rasp- 
berry, blackberry, loganberry and rose are often girdled and 
killed by the spiral burrows of the young larvae of a small 
yellow and black horntail fly. The adults are slender, four- 
winged flies about f of an inch in length. They appear on 
the berry bushes the last of April and remain abundant until 
in August. The female inserts her smooth, pearly-white, 
flattened oval eggs, about T V inch in length, singly just under 
the bark of the young canes. The newly-hatched, yellowish- 
brown larvae feed for a time in the vicinity of the egg, and 
when about \ of an inch in length burrow spirally downward 
three or four times around the cane, working just beneath the 
bark and thus girdling the tip. The larva then enters the pith 
and burrows upward until the tip of the branch dies, when it 
turns round in its burrow and works down through the pith, 
towards the base of the cane. The larvae become full-grown 
in from four to six months and are then nearly an inch in length 
and nearly white in color. They pupate at the end of the bur- 
row and the adults gnaw their way out of the cane. There are 
said to be several broods annually. 

The location of the egg may be easily determined by the 
discoloration of the surrounding tissue, and it may easily be 
crushed by hand. This is probably the most feasible method 
of controlling the pest. Many of the larvae might also be 
destroyed by cutting off the dying tips of the canes as soon as 
wilting of the leaves is observed. This work cannot be done in 
the winter as it is then difficult to distinguish the infested canes. 

Reference 
Monthly Bull. St. Com. Hort. Cal., I, No. 12, pp. 889-901. 1912. 



RASPBERRY, BLACKBERRY AND DEWBERRY INSECTS 335 



The Blackberry Crown-borer 

Bembecia marginata Harris 

Blackberries and raspberries are often injured by the cater- 
pillar of a clear-wing moth which burrows in the roots and crown. 
This insect is generally distributed through- 
out the Northern states and Canada and 
has been recorded from New Mexico. 

The parent moth has an expanse of 1 to 
1 J inches ; the wings are transparent, with 
a brown margin, and the fore wings have 
a narrow, transverse brown band on the 
outer third; the. abdomen is black crossed 
by four bands of bright yellow; in the 
female the last segment is yellow, in the 
male, black mixed with yellow. The 
moths emerge during August and early 
September and the female deposits her 
oval, reddish-brown eggs, T V inch in length, 
singly on the under side of the leaves 
near the edge. Each female lays about 
140 eggs. 

On hatching, the caterpillar is about -jV 
inch in length and is nearly white, with 

brownish head. It crawls down the 




a 



Fig. 294. — The 
blackberry crown-borer 
in its burrow at the 
base of a plant. 



stem and goes into hibernation curled up 
in a small cavity beneath a blister-like 
elevation of the bark of the cane just below 
the surface of the ground or may hibernate in crevices at the 
base of the canes or under flakes of bark. In the spring the 
caterpillars enter the roots or the base of the cane where they 
generally burrow just beneath the bark, girdling that part of 
the plant. By the second winter the larvae are \ to | inch in 
length. They hibernate in their burrows, and the following 




336 FRUIT INSECTS 

spring take an upward course, either through the pith or in the 
wood just beneath the bark (Fig. 294). They become full- 
grown (Fig. 295) in July and burrow out to the surface of the 
cane but leave the epidermis intact over the opening. The 
pupa is about f inch in length, of a reddish-brown color, and has 
the front end armed with a sharp-pointed process used in 
breaking away the epidermis over the end of the burrow. 
The pupal stage lasts 25 to 30 days. When about to transform 
the pupa works itself part way out of the burrow, so that after 
the moth has emerged the empty pupal skin is left protruding 

from the opening. The 
moths usually emerge in 
the afternoon and mating 
takes place in the early 
evening. 

This borer may be held 

Fig. 295. - Mature larva of the blackberry m check by systematically 
crown-borer (X 2). ' ., , 

digging out the larvae 
whenever a dying or wilting tip indicates its presence. All 
wild berry bushes in the vicinity of berry fields should be 
destroyed to prevent the breeding of the moths. 

References 

N. J. Agr. Exp. Sta. Spec. Bull. N., pp. 9-12. 1891. 
Engel, Ent. News, XV, pp. 68-71. 1904. 
Wash. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 63. 1904. 



The Rose Scale 

Aulacaspis (Diaspis) rosce Bouche 

The stems of roses, blackberry, raspberry and dewberry 
growing in damp, shady places often become densely coated 
with a snow-white, nearly circular scale-insect, the larger ones 
about T V of an inch in diameter, with the two light yellow 



RASPBERRY, BLACKBERRY AND DEWBERRY INSECTS 337 



exuviae or cast skins at the margin. Among these larger female 
scales are many of the shorter, narrower, three-ridged, white 
scales of the male insect (Fig. 297). 

This rose scale is practically a cosmopolitan insect, occurring 
wherever roses are grown, and it is widely distributed over the 
United States and Canada. It is not often a serious pest in 
berry plantations and is usually readily controlled. 

In New Jersey, and 
P doubtless also in more 
southern localities, the 
rose scale may hiber- 
nate in all stages from 
the egg to the gravid 
females, mostly, how- 
ever, as young scales 
of both sexes, as male 
pupae and as full-grown 
females. Observations 
in Canada also indi- 
cate similar hiberna- 
tion conditions and at 
least two generations 
annually. Breeding is 
almost continuous after April, and three or more broods may 
occur in New Jersey and southward. 

Two little hymenopterous parasites, Aphelinus diaspidis 
and Arrhenophagus chionaspidis, destroy many of the scales. 
Remedial measures. 

In berry plantations cut and burn all badly infested canes 
soon after the fruit is off, or in winter, and thus prevent serious 
infestation of the new canes. Thorough applications of a soap 
spray (1 pound whale-oil or other good soap in 1 gallon water) 
or the lime-sulfur spray in winter or early spring have been 
found to effectively control this insect. 





Fig. 296. — The rose 
scale, tipped over to 
show the eggs beneath 
it (X7|). 



Fig. 297. — A male 
and two female rose 
scales ( X 3) . 



338 FRUIT INSECTS 



Other Raspberry and Blackberry Insects 

Bud-moth : apple, p. 42. 

Fruit-tree leaf-roller : apple, p. 62. 

Oblique-banded leaf-roller : apple, p. 65. 

Half- winged geometer : apple, p. 96. 

Red-humped apple caterpillar : apple, p. 125. 

Climbing cutworms : apple, p. 138. 

Oyster-shell scale : apple, p. 171. 

Scurfy scale : apple, p. 176. 

Apple leaf-hopper: apple, p. 180. 

Flea-beetles : apple, p. 203. 

Clover-mite : apple, p. 206. 

European fruit lecanium: plum, p. 261. 

Rose chafer : grape, p. 397. 

Imbricated snout-beetle : strawberry, p. 371. 

Fuller's rose beetle : strawberry, p. 389. 

Strawberry root-worms : strawberry, p. 391. 



CHAPTER XI 
CURRANT AND GOOSEBERRY INSECTS 

Commercially the most important insect pests of the cur- 
rant and gooseberry are the imported currant worm, the San 
Jose scale and the currant plant-louse. 

The Imported Currant Borer 

Sesia tipuliformis Clerck 

This destructive European currant-borer was introduced 
into this country some time before 1826, and is now widely dis- 
tributed throughout North America; it also occurs in Asia, 
Australia and New Zealand. The caterpillars burrow (Fig. 
298) in the smaller canes and eat out the pith for a distance of 
several inches, causing the branch to die. While not often a 
serious pest this insect has been known to become so abundant 
in certain gardens that the raising of currants was abandoned 
for a time. 

The beautiful, clear-winged moths (Fig. 300) appear in June 
and may be found flying rapidly about the plants or resting on 
the leaves. The female moth has an expanse of about f inch ; 
the wings are transparent, with a border of golden purple and 
a bar of the same color across the fore wing ; the body is purplish 
black with three narrow bands of yellow on the abdomen in the 
female and four in the male. 

The female moth deposits her brown, almost globular eggs 

singly on the bark. The young larvae bore into the stem and 

then burrow up or down, through the pith, killing the cane. 

339 



340 



FRUIT INSECTS 



They become nearly full-grown by fall and hibernate in the 
burrow. The larvae are then about \ inch in length, whitish 




Fig. 299. — Pupa of the imported currant borer. 
Matheson photo ( X 4) . 



\ 



Fig. 298. — 
The imported 
currant borer 
in its burrow 
ready to pu- 
pate (X I5). 




Fig. 300. — Moth of the imported currant borer. 



with a brownish head and legs. In May the larva burrows 
out to the surface of the stem, leaving the opening covered by a 



CURRANT AND GOOSEBERRY INSECTS 



341 



thin layer of bark. It then transforms to a pupa (Fig. 299) in 
a silken-lined cavity at the end of the burrow. When ready 
to transform the pupa pushes itself part way out of the opening 
and the moth leaves the empty pupal skin projecting from the 
cavity. There is only one brood a year. 

The infested canes do not die in the fall but are usually able 
to put out a sickly foliage the following spring. Such canes 
should be cut off and destroyed before June 1 to prevent the 
emergence of the moths. 



References 

Col. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 19, pp. 21-22. 1892. 
Vt. Agr. Exp. Sta, Rept. for 1894, pp. 130-132. 
Wash. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 36, p. 14. 1898. 



1895. 



The Imported Currant Worm 

Pteronus ribesii Scopoli 

Introduced into this country from Europe about 1857, this 
insect now occurs wherever currants or gooseberries are grown 
in the northeastern states and Canada, and is the commonest 
and best known of gar- 
den pests. 

The adult sawflies 
(Fig. 301) appear as 
soon as the leaves put 
forth in the spring ; 
the female is about 
one third inch in length 
with the head and 
thorax more or less 
black when viewed from 
above and has the ab- 

^ ' Fig. 301. — Adults of the imported currant 

the male is smaller, worm ( x 2) . 




342 



FRUIT INSECTS 




Fig. 302. — Eggs of the imported currant worm. 



one fourth inch in 
length, and has the 
dorsal aspect of the 
abdomen black ex- 
cept at tip. As 
soon as the leaves 
have expanded the 
female deposits her 
whitish, smooth, 
elongate eggs end to 
end in rows along 
the principal veins 
on the underside of 
the leaves of the food- 
plant (Fig. 302). 
The eggs increase in size considerably after deposition, and 
measure about ^o mcn m length when ready to hatch. They 
hatch in a week or ten days, and the small whitish larvse begin 
their destructive work by eating small holes through the leaves 

(Fig. 303). As iiil^L 

they increase in size 

the color changes to 

green, and after the 

first molt the body 

becomes covered 

with many black 

spots and the head 

is black. 

While small the 
larvae feed in col- 
onies, 30 or 40 on 
a leaf, which is 
soon consumed; 
they then scatter Fig. 303. — Newly hatched currant worms feeding. 








CURRANT AND GOOSEBERRY INSECTS 



343 



to other parts of the plant. With increase in size they become 
more destructive, and if numerous are able to strip a bush of 
its leaves in a few days (Fig. 304). The larvae molt several 
times as they increase in size, but the exact number of molts 
has not been determined. They become full-grown in two or 
three weeks, and are then about f inch in length. At the 
last molt they m 
lose their black i » 
spots and assume |H 
a uniform green 
color tinged with 
yellow at the 
ends. The larva 
then descends to 
the ground and 
spins a smooth 
oval brownish co- 
coon beneath 
leaves or other 
trash; sometimes 
the cocoons are 
attached to the 
stems or leaves some distance from the ground. The larva 
transforms to a brownish pupa within the cocoon and the flies 
of the second brood emerge in late June or early July. Some- 
times there is a small third brood. The winter is passed in 
the cocoon, probably in the larval condition. 

Treatment. 

The larvae may be readily destroyed by an early application 
of either 1 pound Paris green or 4 pounds arsenate of lead in 
100 gallons of water. Later, when the fruit is near maturity, 
fresh hellebore should be used at the rate of 4 ounces in 2 or 3 
gallons of water or, as a dry application, 1 pound in 5 pounds of 
flour or air-slaked lime. 




Fig. 304. — Full-grown currant worms. 



344 FRUIT INSECTS 

The Green Currant Worm 

Gymnonychus appendiculatus Hartig 

This is the so-called native currant worm, but as it too was 
doubtless imported from Europe the name should be discarded. 
It is widely distributed throughout the Northern states and 
Canada, and while sometimes destructive in the West, it rarely 
attracts attention in the East. 

The adults are smaller than in the preceding species, and in 
both sexes the body is black. The flies appear in the spring 
just as the leaves are unfolding, and the female inserts her 
whitish eggs into the edge of the currant or gooseberry leaf 
between the two outer layers. The egg swells considerably 
before hatching and produces a distinct blister-like elevation 
of the epidermis of the leaf. They hatch in about five days, 
and the young larvse feed singly on the edge of the leaf, not in 
colonies, as in the preceding species. The larvse are of a uni- 
form light green color and have blackish heads ; they lack the 
black spots characteristic of the foregoing species and are con- 
siderably smaller. They become full-grown in about 12 days 
and spin small brownish cocoons beneath leaves or trash or 
slightly below the surface of the ground ; the flies emerge in 
about a week. In New York there may be four or five broods, 
each generation requiring about twenty-five days from egg to 
adult. 

Whenever this currant worm becomes troublesome, it may 
be controlled by spraying with either 1 pound Paris green or 4 
pounds arsenate of lead in 100 gallons of water at the first ap- 
pearance of the worms. When the fruit is ripening use helle- 
bore, 4 ounces in 2 or 3 gallons of water, or dry 1 pound in 5 
pounds of flour or air-slaked lime. 

■ 

References 

Walsh, Pract. Ent. I, pp. 122-124. 1866. 
Saunders, Rept. Ent. Soc. Ont. f. 1871, p. 34. 1872. 



CURRANT AND GOOSEBERRY INSECTS 345 

The Gooseberry Span-worm 

Cymatophora ribearia Fitch 

Although generally distributed throughout the Atlantic 
and Middle states and eastern Canada, this measuring-worm 
becomes troublesome only occasionally. It attacks gooseberry, 
red and black currant and the blueberry. 

The eggs which have remained on the branches through the 
winter hatch in May about the time the leaves become fully 
expanded. The larvse are measuring- worms or loopers, whitish 
in color with yellow stripes on the back and sides and conspicu- 
ously marked with numerous black spots of various sizes. 
They begin feeding on the tips of the leaves, and, if numerous, 
soon strip the bush and sometimes attack the tender branches. 
When disturbed they let themselves down by a silken thread. 
They become full-grown in three or four weeks and are then an 
inch or less in length ; they leave the bush, enter the ground a 
short distance and transform to a nearly black pupa about ^ 
inch in length. The moths emerge in about two weeks, the 
last of June in New York, and deposit their small, beautifully 
sculptured, elongate oval, dull yellowish-gray eggs on the bark 
of the branches more often near the base of the plant. The 
eggs do not hatch till the following spring, there being but one 
generation a year. The female moth has an expanse of over 
an inch, is of a pale yellow color and has the fore wings crossed 
by two irregular interrupted bands of brownish ; the outer 
band continues across the hind wing. In the male the yellow 
is darker and the markings more distinct. 

Hellebore has not been found effective against this pest, but 
4 pounds arsenate of lead, or 1 pound Paris green in 100 gallons 
of water may be used effectively while the larvae are small. 
When nearly full-grown they are not easily poisoned, and re- 
course must be had to the more tedious and expensive operation 
of hand-picking. 



346 



FRUIT INSECTS 



References 

Fitch, 3d Rept. State Ent. N. Y., pp. 427-428. 1856. 
Saunders, Rept. Ent. Soc. Ont. f., 1874, pp. 18-19. 1875. 
Riley, 9th Rept. Ins. Mo., pp. 3-7. 1877. 

The Pepper-and-salt Currant Moth 
Lycia cognataria Guenee 

Currants and gooseberries are sometimes defoliated by a 
geometrid caterpillar or measuring-worm which, when full- 
grown, is nearly two 
inches in length ; it 
varies in color from 
sea-green to brownish- 
gray or brownish- 
black and is marked 
with indistinct lines 
and spots of green 
and yellowish. When 
at rest it clasps a twig 
with the posterior 
pairs of legs and holds 
the body extended 
rigidly outward ; it is then easily mistaken for a dead twig, 
which it closely resembles in form and color (Fig. 306). It is 
a general feeder and rarely becomes a pest on currants. This 
species occurs in the Eastern states and Canada. 

The caterpillars become full-grown in early July and trans- 
form to a dark brown pupa in the ground. At least part of the 
pupae give rise to moths the same season, about the middle of 
August, but it is quite probable that some of this brood hold 
over till the following spring. The rather heavy-bodied moths 
(Fig. 305) have an expanse of about two inches ; the wings are 
gray, dotted with dark brown and crossed by two wavy bands of 
mahogany brown on the outer third. Moths of the spring 




Fig. 305. 



The pepper-and-salt currant 
moth (x If). 



CURRANT AND GOOSEBERRY INSECTS 



347 



brood appear in May. The eggs are about A inch m length, 
cylindrical with rounded ends, and the surface is beautifully 
marked with rows of hexagonal depressions. A single moth 
has been known to lay about 500 eggs. 




Fig. 306. — Caterpillar of the pepper-and-salt currant moth on a plum branch ; 

it resembles a small dead twig (X lg)- 

Arsenical poisons as used against the imported currant worm 
will hold this insect in check. 

Reference 
Lintner, 2d Report State Ent. N. Y., pp. 97-101. 1885. 

The Four-lined Leaf-bug 
Pcecilocapsus lineatus Fabricius 
The four-lined leaf-bug is a native of America and ranges 
from Canada to Georgia and westward to the Rocky Mountains. 



348 



FRUIT INSECTS 




Fig. 307. — A gooseberry leaf injured 
by the four-lined leaf-bug. 



It has been most troublesome in New England, New York and 
Michigan. It has a wide range of food-plants, but has attracted 
most attention as an enemy of the currant, gooseberry, mint, 

parsnip, Weigelia, dahlia and 
rose. 

The insect usually makes 
its first appearance about the 
middle of May on the newest, 
tenderest terminal leaves . The 
insects are then so small and 
active in hiding themselves 
that they are not apt to at- 
tract attention. Their work, 
however, soon becomes ap- 
parent. The insect inserts 
its beak into the leaf and 
sucks out the green pulp of 
the interior within a small area bounded by the little veinlets. 
As the insects increase in size they suck out the pulp from 
larger areas. The injured portions of the leaf turn brown and 
die and give the leaves a characteristic spotted appearance (Fig. 
307). The spots often coalesce and the 
whole leaf turns brown, curls up and dies. 
The growth of the shoot is checked, and 
the terminal portion dies. In cases of se- 
vere infestation the whole field has the ap- 
pearance of having been scorched by fire. 
On currant and gooseberry the insect con- 
fines its attacks to the leaves, but on dahlia 
and rose it attacks the buds. 

The newly hatched nymph is about -£$ 
inch in length, of a bright vermillion red 
color with large black spots on the thorax. In the course of its 
development, which requires from 17 to 20 days, the nymph 




Fig. 308. — The four- 
lined leaf-bug (X 2). 



CURRANT AND GOOSEBERRY INSECTS 



349 




passes through five stages. The full- 
grown nymph is of a bright orange- 
yellow color and about f inch in length. 
The black wing-pads have a broad yel- 
lowish-green stripe near the outer mar- 
gin and extend about halfway to the 
tip of the abdomen. At the fifth molt 
the winged adult appears, about the 
middle of June in New York, and is 
about | inch in length ; the general 
color of the body is bright orange- 
yellow with four black stripes on the 
thorax and wing-covers (Fig. 308) ; the 
legs and the areas between the black 
stripes are dark apple-green, changing 
to lemon-yellow after death. 

The adults are provided with a beak, 
and feed in the same manner as do the 

nymphs. They are more voracious, however, and do more 

damage. They are shy, very active when 
alarmed and very difficult to capture. Egg- 
laying begins about a week after the adults 
appear and is completed early in July. The 
female is provided with a thin, blade-like 
obliquely pointed ovipositor by means of 
which she cuts a slit about -J- inch long in 
the bark of the soft, tender growth in 
which she deposits 6 or 8 light yellow 
eggs. Each egg is T V inch in length, 
smooth, slightly curved, and has the upper 
third capped by a white, finely striated 

Fig 310 Currant 

stem split to show eggs portion (Fig. 310). With the growth of 
and the larva of a para- the surrounding tissue the eggs are usually 

site feeding on them , , 

( X 6). forced out of the stem somewhat, so that 



Fig. 309. — Currant stem 
showing white egg-clusters 
of the four-lined leaf- bug. 




350 FRUIT INSECTS 

about one half or more of the white portion projects from 
the slit, making it rather easy to locate the eggs (Fig. 309). 
There is but one generation a year. 

Treatment. 

The nymphs may be destroyed while small by a thorough 
application of kerosene emulsion diluted with five parts of 
water. This is probably the most practicable means of fighting 
the pest while in the nymphal stage. The pruning and burning 
of the tips in which all the eggs are laid is an efficient means 
of keeping the pest in check. When occurring on herbaceous 
plants, probably the best method is to capture the bugs by 
jarring them into a dish partly filled with kerosene and water. 

Reference 
Cornell Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 58. 1893. 

The Currant Plant-louse 

Myzus ribis Linnaeus 

In the Northern states and Canada the foliage of currants 
is very commonly distorted and discolored by the presence of 
yellowish-green plant-lice on the under side of the leaves. Red 
currants are most subject to attack, but black currants and 
gooseberries are sometimes infested. The insect is a native 
of Europe, where, in addition to the cultivated varieties, it also 
infests the wild alpine currant. It was probably introduced 
into America in the early part of the nineteenth century, but 
did not attract attention until about 1857. 

The shining black, cucumber-shaped eggs, attached to the 
bark of the new growth, hatch soon after the leaves open. The 
young lice crawl to the leaves and begin feeding on the under 
surface ; these lice hatched from the eggs are all females and 
are known as stem-mothers. When mature they give birth to 
living young, and each individual is soon surrounded by a nu- 



CURRANT AND GOOSEBERRY INSECTS 



351 



merous progeny. Through- 
out the summer only fe- 
males (Fig. 311) are pro- 
duced, and the young are 
born alive. At first nearly 
all of the lice are wingless, 
but as the leaves become 
crowded, winged females 
develop and migrate to 
other bushes. 

The lice become abun- 
dant by the middle of 
May in New York, and 

often cover the entire under surface of the leaves (Fig. 313). 
The irritation of their combined punctures causes the leaf 




Fig. 311. — The currant plant-louse, wing- 
less viviparous female. Enlarged. 




Fig. 312. — Currant leaves curled by plant-lice. 



to become badly curled and distorted so that pocket-like 
cavities are formed on the under side (Fig. 312). The upper 



352 



FRUIT INSECTS 



surface turns a bright red, variegated with yellow and green. 
Later the badly injured leaves may fall from the bushes and 
thus prevent the fruit from maturing properly. The fruit is 

also injured by a black 
fungus which grows on 
the sticky substance, 
known as honey-dew, 
secreted by the lice. 

After the middle of 
July the lice become 
greatly reduced in num- 
bers, owing to the at- 
tacks of their numerous 
predaceous and parasitic 
enemies, but a few fe- 
males are able to sur- 
vive, and at the ap- 
proach of cold weather 
give rise to true males 
and females. The latter deposit the winter eggs on the twigs 
during the latter part of October. 
Treatment. 

The currant plant-louse is not an easy insect to control, 
owing to the way in which it is protected in the pocket-like 
cavities of the curled leaves. These soft-bodied lice are easily 
killed by ordinary contact insecticides, such as kerosene emul- 
sion, soap solutions and tobacco extracts ; the difficulty is in 
reaching them. To be effective, the spraying must be done with 
great thoroughness soon after the hatching of the eggs and 
before the leaves curl ; an upturned nozzle should be used so as 
to hit the leaves from beneath. 




Fig. 313. 



- A colony of currant plant-lice on 
the underside of a leaf. 



Reference 
N. Y. (Geneva) Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 139, pp. 660-663. 1897. 



CURRANT AND GOOSEBERRY INSECTS 353 

The Gooseberry Midge 

Dasyneura grossularice Fitch 

The fruit of the gooseberry is sometimes destroyed by a 
small, bright yellow maggot which feeds in the pulp and causes 
the berry to turn red prematurely, decay and fall to the ground. 
The parent fly is a delicate midge resembling a mosquito in 
form, about xV mcn m length, with a pale yellow body and legs 
and with black eyes and blackish antennae. The female ap- 
parently punctures the skin of the fruit with her ovipositor 
and inserts the egg directly into the pulp. 

Pupation takes place within the decayed berry, and the flies 
emerge in the latter part of July. The further history of this 
insect is unknown. 

The gooseberry midge has never become a serious pest. 
No better remedy has been suggested than to collect and destroy 
the infested berries before the flies have had time to mature. 

Reference 
Fitch, 1st Rept. State Ent. N. Y., p. 176. 1855. 

The Gooseberry Fruit-worm 

Zophodia grossularice Packard 

Gooseberries and currants are subject to the attacks of a 
greenish caterpillar (Fig. 314) with a brownish head f inch in 
length when full-grown, which feeds within the fruit and causes 
it to color prematurely and either dry up or fall to the ground 
and decay (Fig. 315). While ordinarily not a serious pest, it 
has been known to destroy almost the entire crop in certain 
places, particularly in the West. 

The grayish moths have an expanse of nearly an inch ; the 
fore wings are crossed by darker lines, and there is a row of 

2a 





354 FEUIT INSECTS 

small blackish dots near the outer margin. The female is said 
to deposit her eggs on the fruit, but no one seems to have 
described the egg. The young larva enters the partly grown 

berry and feeds on the pulp, 
casting out the excrement 
through the opening in the skin 
of the fruit by which it entered. 
It will sometimes enter several 
berries in succession, and often 
webs together several berries 

" HEP 

with a silken thread. When 

Fig. 314. — The gooseberry fruit- full-grown it descends to the 

worm. Knight photo. , gr0 und and transforms to a 

pupa within a brownish oval cocoon beneath dead leaves or other 
trash. The winter is passed as a pupa, and the moths emerge 
the next spring soon after the fruit has set. 

The caterpillars are very active, and when alarmed will 
wriggle out of the berry and hang suspended by a silken thread 
only to return to 
the fruit when the £ ^ ^ 
danger is passed. 

1 T6Q/tl7l€7lt . iffr 

The control of this ^"^ 

pest has not been Fig. 3 15. -Gooseberries injured by the gooseberry 
^ fruit-worm. Knight photo. 

worked out, and 

nothing better than hand-picking of the infested berries 
has been suggested. Care must be taken in collecting the 
injured fruit that the caterpillars do not crawl out and 
escape. While satisfactory in a small garden, hand-picking 
is too expensive to be practicable under commercial condi- 
tions. If poultry are allowed to run in the field after the 
crop is harvested, they will doubtless devour many of the 
pupae in their hibernating quarters beneath trash on the 
ground. 



tf&iW 





CURRANT AND GOOSEBERRY INSECTS 355 



References 

Riley, 1st Rept. Ins. Mo., pp. 140-142. 1869. 

Saunders, 7th Rept. Ent. Soc. Ontario, for 1876, pp. 39-40. 1877. 



The Yellow Currant Fruit-fly 

Epochra canadensis Loew 

Throughout the Northern states and Canada the currant 
and gooseberry crop is often seriously injured by a small white 
maggot which feeds within the fruit. The loss occasioned by 
this insect seems to be greater in the West, particularly in 
mountainous regions where there is an abundance of wild 
berries in which flies may breed undisturbed. Gillette states 
that in Colorado this fruit-fly is the most serious insect enemy 
of the currant and gooseberry. 

The pale yellowish flies, about as large as the house fly, with 
green eyes and banded wings, appear in May in the Eastern 
states, become abundant about the middle of June, and finally 
disappear after having been on the wing about a month. The 
female fly inserts her elongate, whitish egg under the skin of 
the unripe fruit through a puncture made with her sharp ex- 
tensible ovipositor. The egg is about ^V inch in length, white, 
elongate oval and provided at one end with a short pedicel. 
Several eggs may be deposited in a single berry, each in a 
separate puncture. Each female is capable of laying about 
200 eggs. 

On hatching, the young maggot may burrow for some distance 
just beneath the skin before entering the pulp. It then attacks 
the immature seeds, feeding on the kernel. Infested berries 
may be distinguished by having a discolored spot either around 
the puncture or over the place where a maggot has been feeding 
on the seeds. They color prematurely and usually fall to the 
ground and decay. In about three weeks the maggots become 



356 FRUIT INSECTS 

full-grown; they are then over \ inch in length, white, with 
black mouth parts. They then leave the fruit through a ragged 
hole in the skin, sometimes while it is hanging on the bush, but 
more often after it has fallen to the ground, and go into hiber- 
nating quarters a short distance in the ground or beneath 
rubbish. The winter is passed in a broadly oval, straw-colored 
puparium about J inch in length. There is only one generation 
a year. 

No practicable method of controlling this insect in large 
plantings has been suggested. In the garden it might be 
feasible to collect and destroy the infested berries either before 
they fall or very soon afterwards. Where poultry are allowed 
to run under the bushes, they may be able to find and destroy 
many of the puparia. 

References 

Me. Agr. Exp. Sta. Rept. for 1895, pp. 111-124. 
Paine, Psyche, XIX, pp. 139-144. 1912. 

The Dark Currant Fruit-fly 

Rhagoletis ribicola Doane 

In Washington and neighboring states currants and goose- 
berries are also subject to the attacks of a species of fruit-fly 
closely related to the preceding. The adult is only about half 
as large as the house fly, black with four yellow stripes on the 
thorax and a large spot on the scutellum yellow ; the head is 
yellow with greenish eyes, the legs are yellow and the wings 
are crossed by four brown bands. 

The flies are on the wing from the middle of June till the 
middle of July. The female deposits her eggs just beneath the 
skin of the berry, and the maggot becomes full-grown in three 
or four weeks. They enter the ground a short distance, or find 
protection beneath rubbish and pass the winter in a brownish 
or black puparium. The habits and life history of this species 



CURRANT AND GOOSEBERRY INSECTS 



357 



are very similar to the foregoing, and the means of control are 

the same. 

Reference 

Wash. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 36, pp. 3-6. 1898. 



The Currant-stem Girdler 
Janus integer Norton 

In the Northern states and Canada currant bushes are often 
injured by a sawfly, which, after depositing her eggs in a cane, 
girdles the tip, caus- 
ing it to wilt and 
drop. It is a na- 
tive insect which 
probably fed origi- 
nally on the wild 
currant, but did 
not attract atten- 
tion as an enemy 
of the cultivated 
varieties until 
about 1888. 

The sawflies 
emerge from the 
middle to the last 
of May in New 
York ; both sexes 
have shining black 
bodies and light 
brownish-yellow 
legs (Fig. 316). In 
the male nearly all 

Fig. 316. — Adult male and female of the currant- 
Of a brownish-yel- stem girdler (X 2\). 




358 



FRUIT INSECTS 




Fig. 317. 



The currant-stem girdler 
ovipositing. 



low color, while in the female 
the front half of the abdomen 
is reddish-orange, and the rest 
is black. The female is about 
\ inch in length, the male 
somewhat smaller. The 
former is provided with a 
stout, sharp saw-toothed ovi- 
positor, which when exserted 
extends at a right angle be- 
neath the abdomen (Fig. 317). 
By means of this ovipositor 
the female punctures a cane 
a few inches from the tip and inserts the elongate oval, yel- 
lowish-white egg into the pith (Fig. 318). After the egg is 
deposited she walks up the shoot for from one half inch to 
an inch and deftly girdles the cane with her ovipositor. Some- 
times the girdling is so complete that the tip falls at once, but 
usually a portion remains uncut and the tip may remain at- 
tached for some time, especially if the shoot is a large, vigorous 
one (Fig. 319). This killing of the tip of 
the cane seems to be necessary for the 
development of the egg and grub. 

The eggs hatch in about eleven days. 
The grubs feed almost entirely on the 
pith, which they tunnel out to a distance 
of not over six inches, leaving the bur- 
row packed full of excrement behind 
them. The borer becomes full-grown 
about the first of September and cleans 
out the lower end of its burrow for the 
distance of about three fourths inch and 
then eats a passageway out to the outer ^l^t 
bark, which soon dies and shrinks over position. Enlarged. 




CURRANT AND GOOSEBERRY INSECTS 



359 



this point. It then surrounds itself with a silken cocoon within 
which it remains as a grub all winter. The change to a pupa 
takes place in the spring, and the adult insect emerges a few 
days later. . r 

The currant-stem girdler 
cannot be reached at any 
time or in any way with a 
spray. Fortunately, however > 
its habits are such that it 
can be easily controlled by 
other means. The girdling 
habit of the adult insect 
which causes the young shoot 
to wilt, die, and drop off in 
May makes it easy to deter- 
mine whether the pest is pres- 
ent or not. Since the egg is 
embedded in the shoot less 
than an inch below where the 
girdling is done, and as the 
grubs rarely tunnel down 
more than six inches, if the FlG - 31 1 9 - ~ Gil f e + d l° Tti ™ °! a 

stem, much enlarged, to snow the char- 
injured shoots are CUt off at acter of the girdle. 

least eight inches below the 

girdle and burned, the insect will be effectively controlled. If 
the work is performed in May or June soon after the girdling 
is done, only two or three inches of the tips need be cut off. 
The cutting and burning of about eight inches of the tips of 
the injured shoots at any time of the year, even in winter, will 
prove an effective remedy for this pest. 




References 

Marlatt, Ins. Life, VII, pp. 387-390. 1895. 
Cornell Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 126, pp. 41-53. 1897. 



360 FRUIT INSECTS 

The Walnut Scale 
Aspidiotus juglans-regice Comstock 

Mature female scales of this species are pale grayish-brown 
in color with the reddish-orange exuvial spot one side of the 
center, and they are larger than the San Jose scale, being about 
| of an inch in diameter. The species is oviparous, hibernated 
adult females laying eggs early in the spring, and eggs for another 
brood are laid in June. There are two and possibly three 
generations of this scale insect in the South, yet it rarely 
occurs in injurious numbers. We have seen currant stems 
incrusted with it, and it also occurs on apple, pear, cherry, 
peach, apricot and plum, besides on its only food-plant in 
California, the English walnut. It is widely distributed over 
the United States and occurs in Canada. 

This walnut scale will doubtless succumb to thorough appli- 
cations of the winter washes recommended for the San Jose 

scale. 

Other Currant and Gooseberry Insects 

Green fruit-worms : apple, p. 39. 
Fruit-tree leaf-roller : apple, p. 62. 
Oblique-banded leaf-roller : apple, p. 65. 
Climbing cutworms : apple, p. 138. 
San Jose scale : apple, p. 162. 
Oyster-shell scale : apple, p. 171. 
Putnam's scale : apple, p. 179. 
Apple leaf-hopper : apple, p. 180. 
Flat-headed apple-tree borer : apple, p. 194. 
Flea-beetles : apple, p. 203. 
European pear scale : pear, p. 234. 
European fruit-tree scale : plum, p. 260. 
European fruit lecanium : plum, p. 261. 
Cherry scale : cherry, p. 312. 
Red-spider : raspberry, p. 315. 
Imbricated snout-beetle : strawberry, p. 371. 



CHAPTER XII 
STRAWBERRY INSECTS 

Strawberry plants are at the most short-lived; they are 
low growing and are usually cultivated in closely set rows. 
Strawberry growing is more akin to the raising of field crops 
than to the cultivation of other fruits. Likewise in the control 
of strawberry insects less reliance is placed on spraying and more 
attention is given to crop rotation, fall plowing, clean culti- 
vation, and similar practices. The one-crop system of straw- 
berry culture as now practiced by the majority of commercial 
growers greatly simplifies the problem of insect control. This 
is especially true in the case of white grubs, root worms and other 
under-ground insects. 

The Strawberry Leaf-roller 

Ancylis comptana Frolich 

Throughout the Northern states and Canada, from Colorado 
eastward, strawberries are often seriously injured by a small 
greenish or brownish caterpillar which folds the two halves 
of the leaflets together and feeding within the shelter so formed 
causes them to turn brown and die. In years of great abund- 
ance the injury may be very severe ; the foliage is destroyed 
and the fruit fails to mature. 

The parent moth measures about f inch across the expanded 
wings ; its general' color is light reddish-brown and the fore 
wings are marked with wavy bands of white and darker brown. 

361 



362 FRUIT INSECTS 

The moths appear in the strawberry fields in early May in 
New Jersey and in April in southern Missouri. The female 
deposits her pale green, round or slightly oval, strongly flattened 
eggs singly on the underside of the leaves. One observer says 
they are laid on the upper side along the mid-rib. The eggs 
hatch in about a week and the young caterpillars crawl to the 
upper surface, where they feed for a day or two openly on the 
upper epidermis without any protective covering. Within 
a few days the larva begins to draw the two halves of the leaflet 
together with silken threads and finally produces a complete 
fold, within which it finishes its growth in about a month. 
When full-grown it is about \ inch in length, varies in color 
from yellowish to greenish-brown and has the head and cervical 
shield shining brown. It transforms to a pale brownish pupa, 
-^ inch in length, within the folded leaf, and in about ten days 
the moth emerges. From 42 to 50 days are required for the 
development from egg to moth. In New Jersey there are three 
generations a year, but the later broods greatly overlap. Farther 
north there are only two generations a year, while there is some 
evidence of a fourth brood in Kentucky. The insect hibernates 
both as a larva and as a pupa. At the approach of cold weather 
some of the partly grown caterpillars desert the leaves and seek 
shelter beneath trash or the mulch, returning to the leaves to 
complete their growth the following spring; while those that 
are mature transform to pupae and remain in that condition 
in the folded leaves until the following spring, when they give 
rise to the first brood of moths. 

The strawberry leaf-roller also attacks the blackberry and 
raspberry, being especially abundant on these plants during the 
latter part of the season. On strawberries it is usually the first 
brood that causes the greatest loss. The caterpillars of the 
later broods are, as a rule, less numerous and, owing to the greater 
quantity of foliage on which to feed, cause less apparent injury 
to the plants. 



STRAWBERRY INSECTS 



363 



Means of control. 

Experiments in New Jersey have shown that the strawberry 
leaf-roller can be effectively controlled by a single, timely 
application of arsenate of lead, 5 pounds in 100 gallons of water. 
The poison should be applied within a week after the first 
appearance of the moths and just before the young larvae begin 
to fold the leaves. Spraying after the leaves are folded will 
do little or no good. 

In some parts of the country the leaf-roller is controlled by 
burning over the strawberry field soon after the crop is harvested. 




Fig, 320. — Larva of the ob- 
solete-banded strawberry leaf- 
roller beginning to roll a leaf. 




Fig. 321. — Full-grown larva of the obsolete- 
banded strawberry leaf -roller (x 3). 



In this way practically all the larvae and pupae in the folded 
leaves are destroyed. 

Strawberry beds that are to be abandoned should be plowed 
under directly after the picking of the last crop and not allowed 
to remain as breeding places for the moths. 



References 

Forbes, 13th Rept. State Ent. 111., pp. 87-93. 1884. 
Ky. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 31, pp. 13-16. 1890. 
N. J. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 225, pp. 17-23. 1909. 



364 



FRUIT INSECTS 



The Obsolete-banded Strawberry Leaf-roller 
Archips obsoletana Walker 

Occasionally strawberry beds are seriously injured by a small 
olive-green caterpillar which folds the leaves or webs them 

together so as to destroy the foliage and 
prevent the ripening of the fruit. Out- 
breaks have been reported in Illinois and 
New York only, but the insect is widely 





Fig. 322.— Pupa of the 
obsolete-banded straw- 
berry leaf-roller ( X 5) . 



Fig. 323. — Male (above) and female (below) 
moths of the obsolete-banded strawberry leaf- 
roller. 



distributed throughout the eastern United States from Texas 
to Massachusetts. 

Where or in what stage the insect passes the winter is not 
known. In May the young caterpillars appear on the leaves, 
where they feed at first on the underside of the leaves, skeleton- 
izing small areas ; they first live in a little tube formed by tying 
the leaf hairs together with silk near a vein. In a few days the 
caterpillar crawls to the upper surface and begins to fold the 



STRAWBERRY INSECTS 



365 




Fig. 324. — Egg-cluster of the obsolete-banded strawberry leaf-roller, much 
enlarged, with another cluster natural size in upper right-hand corner. 

leaflet by spinning silken threads above its body from one side 
to the other across the mid- 
rib and thus gradually draw- 
ing the edges of the leaflet 
together (Fig. 320). Within 
this protecting roll the cater- 
pillar lives, feeding upon the 
leaf and often joining other 
leaves to it. Sometimes the 
caterpillar forms a similar 
protection by drawing to- 
gether the blossoms and 
forming fruits, which it eats 
(Fig. 325). 

In New York the first 
brood of caterpillars (Fig. 
321) mature about the first 




Fig. 



325. — Young fruits tied together 
and ruined by the caterpillars. 



366 



FRUIT INSECTS 



week of June and transform to slender dark brown pupae, 
about J inch in length, within the folded leaf (Fig. 322). 
In about ten days the moths emerge (Fig. 323). The 
general color of the moth varies from wood-brown to russet; 
the fore wings are crossed obliquely by a broad, dark brown 
band and have a large spot of the same color near the tip. 
The thin, oval, light lemon-yellow eggs are laid in clusters of 
more than a hundred, overlapping each other like shingles on 

a roof (Fig. 324). 
Just where the 
moth places her 
eggs in the field 
has not been de- 
termined. The 
eggs hatch in about 
ten days. In New 
York there are three 
broods a year, cat- 
erpillars developing 

How the caterpillars destroy the leaves in May, July and 

which they roll. December. 

Means of control. 

The measures suggested for use against the strawberry leaf- 
roller on page 363 would doubtless be effective against this species. 




Fig. 326. 



Reference 
Cornell Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 190, pp. 145-149. 1901. 



The Black-marked Strawberry Slug 

Empria maculata Norton 

In the Northern states east of the Rocky Mountains and in 
Canada the foliage of the strawberry is occasionally attacked 
by the greenish larvae of a small dark colored sawfly. Out- 



STRAWBERRY INSECTS 367 

breaks have been reported from Missouri, Illinois, Indiana and 
Canada. 

The adult is a black-bodied, four-winged fly about J inch 
in length and has a row of whitish spots on each side of the 
abdomen. The flies emerge from the ground in early spring 
and the female inserts her pure white, elongate, compressed 
eggs in the petioles of the leaves. The eggs hatch in about two 
weeks and the yellowish or greenish larvae attract attention in 
May by eating small round holes in the leaves. When abundant 
they may completely destroy the foliage in a few days. Much 
of the feeding is done at night ; during the day the larvae remain 
curled up on the underside of the leaves or hide at the base of 
the plant. They become full-grown by the last of June in 
Illinois and are then about f inch in length, pale greenish to 
grayish-yellow in color ; the head is yellow, marked with at 
least three large dark spots. When mature the larva enters 
the ground and constructs an oval cocoon composed of earth 
cemented together with a gummy substance within which it 
passes the winter as a shortened, thickened larva, the so-called 
pre-pupa. Pupation takes place in early spring and the adults 
emerge soon after. 

As a rule, there is only one generation a year, but there is 
evidence to show that occasionally a partial second brood may 
develop in the more southern part of the insect's range. 

Means of control. 

The sawfly larvae are readily killed with arsenicals, and if the 
application is made before the fruit is more than one half grown, 
they may be used with perfect safety. Paris green, 1 pound in 150 
gallons of water, with the addition of three pounds of fresh lime, 
has given good results, but as there has been some complaint of 
burning of the foliage with this poison, arsenate of lead, 4 pounds 
in 100 gallons of water, will probably be found more satisfactory. 
It should be used at the first appearance of the larvae, before 
the berries are more than one half grown. After the fruit has 
begun to ripen use hellebore, 4 ounces in 2 gallons of water. 



368 FRUIT INSECTS 



References 

Riley, 9th Rept. Ins. Mo., pp. 27-29. 1877. 
Forbes, 13th Rept. State Ent. 111., pp. 71-76. 1884. 
Forbes, 14th Rept. State Ent. 111., pp. 77-78. 1885. 
Iowa Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 18, pp. 512-514. 1892. 
Ohio Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 68, pp. 33-35. 1896. 
Mo. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 54, pp. 192-202. 1901. 



The Gkeen Strawberry Slug 

Empria ignota Norton 

This species is closely related to the one last treated, but 
differs from it somewhat in the details of its life history. The 
injury inflicted is, however, practically the same. It has been 
reported as troublesome in Iowa, Illinois and Indiana. 

The flies appear in the spring somewhat earlier than the 
preceding species and deposit their eggs singly just beneath the 
lower epidermis of the leaf, thereby causing small light-colored 
blisters. Three or four eggs are laid in a leaf. As soon as 
hatched the young larvae begin to eat small holes in the leaves, 
and if abundant, may strip the plants of their foliage, leaving 
the fruit stunted and unable to ripen properly. They molt 
four times, becoming full-grown in May or early June. They 
are then over one half inch in length, deep green in color with 
obscure blackish dorsal and lateral stripes ; the head is uniform 
yellowish-brown without the distinctive blackish spots of 
E. maculata described above. When full-grown the larva 
enters the ground an inch or so and forms a frail earthen cocoon 
lined with silk, within which the insect remains in a shortened 
and thickened condition till the following spring, when the 
transformation to the pupa and adult takes place. 

Treatment. 

The green strawberry slug may be controlled by the measures 
suggested for the species last treated. 



STRAWBERRY INSECTS 369 

References 

Mally, Insect Life, II, pp. 137-140. 1889. 
Mally, Insect Life, III, pp. 9-12. 1890. 

In Colorado a sawfly (Emphytus gillettei MacGillivray) with 
habits almost identical with those of the above has been re- 
ported as locally destructive. The larva is nearly an inch in 
length when full-grown, green above and cream colored beneath ; 
the head is yellowish with a brown patch above. 

Reference 
Johnson, Rept. Ent. Col. 1903, pp. 13-14. 



The Strawberry Whitefly 

Aleyrodes packardi Morrill 

This near relative of the common whitefly of the greenhouse 
is often found on strawberries growing out of doors, but has been 
reported as noticeably destructive only in one instance, in south- 
eastern New York. 

The insect passes the winter as a minute, smooth, oval, metallic 

bronze-colored egg attached to the underside of the leaf by 

a short stalk. The winter eggs hatch in early spring into 

minute, flat, pale green, lice-like insects which are able to crawl 

some distance over the surface of the leaf. The insect soon 

settles down, punctures the leaf with its bristle-like mouth 

parts through which it feeds on the sap. It remains stationary, 

soon loses the use of its legs and secretes a covering of wax which 

gives it the appearance of a scale insect. It molts three times 

and then assumes the so-called pupa form. In this stage the 

insect appears as a delicate, greenish-yellow, oval wax box with 

perpendicular sides, about -£$ inch in length, and has the dorsal 

surface ornamented by long curved waxen rods. In about 
2b 



370 FRUIT INSECTS 

a month from the hatching of the egg the minute, mealy white, 
four- winged flies appear to lay eggs for another brood. 

The winter eggs hatch in early spring and those nymphs that 
escape the spring frosts give rise to adults in May; breeding 
continues until cold weather. As a rule, the insects are most 
abundant the latter part of the season. The nymphs secrete 
a sweet sticky substance known as honey-dew, which collecting 
on the leaves serves as a medium for the growth of a black 
fungus, which gives infested plants a characteristic sooty 
appearance. 

Methods of control. 

Fortunately the strawberry whitefly is rarely abundant 
enough to injure the crop to any great extent. The nymphs 
are easily killed by the ordinary contact insecticides, soap 
solution, nicotine, etc., but as they are found exclusively on 
the underside of the leaves it would be a difficult matter to hit 
them. It might be possible, however, to do effective work 
by using an upturned nozzle attached to the end of a short rod 
to be used as a handle. 

References 

Cornell Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 190, pp. 155-158. 1901. 

Morrill, Can. Ent. XXXV, pp. 25-35. 1903. 

Mass. Agr. Exp. Sta. Tech. Bull. 1, pp. 53-62. 1903. 

The Strawberry Flea-beetle 

Haltica ignita llliger 

This small, green, coppery or blue flea-beetle about | inch 
in length is widely distributed throughout the country from 
Hudson Bay to Florida and Texas. The beetles emerge from 
hibernation in early spring and feed voraciously on the tender 
foliage of a number of wild and cultivated plants, including the 
grape and strawberry. They have been found most destructive 
to strawberries in the South, Florida and Texas. The injury to 



STRAWBERRY INSECTS 371 

strawberry plants is sometimes very severe ; the beetles appear 
in immense numbers and completely riddle the leaves. 

The beetles deposit their eggs on leaves of the evening prim- 
rose and related plants. The larvae feed on the leaves and seed- 
pods, going into the ground to transform. There is only one 
brood a year in the North and two or three in the South. 

Treatment. 

The beetles may be driven away by thorough applications 

of Bordeaux mixture. By adding arsenate of lead, 4 to 8 

pounds in 100 gallons, it is possible to kill a few of the beetles, 

but probably not enough to pay for the trouble. As the only 

known food-plants of the larvae are the evening primrose and 

its allies, such weeds should not be tolerated in the vicinity of 

strawberry beds. 

Reference 

Chittenden, U. S. Bur. Ent. Bull. 23, pp. 70-78. 1900. 

The Imbricated Snout-beetle 

Epiccerus imbricatus Say 

Strawberry plants are sometimes defoliated by this greenish- 
brown snout-beetle f to \ inch in length. The wing-covers are 
crossed by two irregular light bands, more distinct in the males. 
The greater part of the insect is clothed with small appressed 
scales which are imbricated or overlap, like the scales of a fish, 
hence the common name. The insect is found east of the Rocky 
Mountains, except in the extreme North and South. It is 
a general feeder in the adult stage, attacking, among others, 
apple, peach, pear, cherry, raspberry, gooseberry, onions, beets 
and cabbage, in addition to a large variety of wild plants. 

In confinement the female deposits her smooth elongate, dull 
yellow eggs in clusters on a leaf and then glues another leaf or 
a portion of the same leaf over them. The larva is a root 
feeder, but its natural food-plant is unknown. 



372 FRUIT INSECTS 

Treatment. 

It is probable that the beetles could be either killed or driven 

away from strawberry plants by a thorough application of 

arsenate of lead, 5 to 8 pounds in 100 gallons of water. Of 

course, it would not be safe to use this poison after the fruit had 

attained much size. 

Reference 

Chittenden, U. S. Bur. Ent. Bull. 19, pp. 62-67. 1899. 

The Strawberry Weevil 

Anthonomus signatus Say 

The size of the strawberry crop in the country east of the 
Rocky Mountains is often greatly lessened by the attacks of 
a small reddish-brown to black weevil which after laying an 
egg in the flower bud causes it to fall by cutting the pedicel. 
In badly infested localities losses of 50 to 60 per cent of the crop 
are not uncommon. Fortunately its attacks are of an inter- 
mittent nature; after two or three years of abundance in a 
locality the weevil usually disappears and does not again attract 
attention for a much longer period. 

The insect hibernates in the beetle stage, under rubbish, 
particularly in wood lots or hedge rows adjoining strawberry 
fields. The beetles (Fig. 327) are only about T V inch in length 
and vary from almost black to reddish brown, with the head 
and thorax more or less black and with a large black spot on 
each wing-cover. 

The adults forsake their winter quarters in the spring and 
appear in the strawberry fields as soon as the blossom buds put 
forth. After feeding to a slight extent on immature pollen pro- 
cured by puncturing the blossom buds the female deposits her 
eggs singly in the interior of the nearly mature but unopened 
buds of the staminate varieties. She first punctures the floral 
envelope of the bud with her snout and then turning around 



STRAWBERRY INSECTS 



373 



inserts the smooth, oval, pale yellow egg, about ■£$ inch in 
diameter, through this puncture into the interior of the bud, 
where it lies upon the unopened stamens. She then crawls 
down the stem of the bud and girdles it so that the bud either 
falls to the ground at once or hangs a few days attached by a few 
shreds of tissue. This operation serves to prevent the opening 
of the bud and thus provides protection to the future grub. 
Most of the buds fall to the ground within a few days, where 
they are more liable to remain moist, a condition necessary 
for the development 
of the larvae. 

The egg hatches 
in about a week and 
the young grub at 
first feeds almost en- 
tirely on the pollen, 
but later may attack 
other parts of the 
interior of the bud. 
When full-grown the 
grub is about ^ inch 
in length, strongly 
curved and of a white 

or yellowish color. The larvae become mature in three or four 
weeks and construct a cell in the frass with which the bud is 
filled. The pupal stage lasts about a week ; thus completing 
the whole life-cycle in four or five weeks. The new crop of 
beetles feed for a short time on the pollen of flowers, especially 
those of the wild bergamot, and then disappear, going into hiber- 
nation in midsummer. There is only one generation a year. 

The strawberry weevil originally bred in the buds of red-bud 
or Judas-tree, the wild blackberry, dewberry and strawberry 
as well as in those of the yellow flowered cinquefoil, but the 
cultivated strawberry is now the favorite food-plant. The larva 




Fig. 327. — The strawberry weevil (x 15). 



374 FRUIT INSECTS 

requires a diet of pollen and the female as a rule instinctively 
selects for oviposition the buds of those varieties only which 
are well supplied with this substance. Varieties with imperfect 
flowers, that is, lacking stamens, are attacked only to a slight 
extent. 

Treatment. 

Practically all of the injury caused by the strawberry weevil 
is due to the cutting off of the blossom buds by the female in 
oviposition. Fortunately, as a rule, she confines herself in- 
stinctively to the staminate varieties and leaves the plants with 
imperfect flowers untouched. In view of these facts it has been 
common to recommend the setting of varieties with imperfect 
flowers for the main crop and planting only every fifth row to 
some perfect flowered form in order to insure proper fertilization. 
This method is said to have been used with success in Maryland 
and Virginia. Owing to the difficulty of finding imperfect vari- 
eties having all the other characters necessary to make them 
commercially profitable, many growers in infested regions rely 
on profusely blooming perfect flowered varieties. The weevils 
attack these, it is true, but owing to the abundance of blossoms, 
generally enough are left to give a good crop. The greater 
part of the injury is done within two weeks after the first buds 
mature on the early varieties. Wherever it is possible to have 
the main crop come a little later much of the injury can be 
avoided. In fact, it might be worth while to use very early 
profusely blooming perfect varieties as a trap crop. A row or 
two of these plants should be set on the exposed side of the field 
adjoining wood land or hedge rows in which the beetles hi- 
bernate. The beetles will congregate on these rows and deposit 
eggs there, after which the plants should be mowed, allowed to 
dry and then burned, or they may be plowed under deeply, 
thus killing the grubs in the buds. As a rule, it is not advisable 
to plant strawberries next to wood lots or waste land, or to 
tolerate hedge rows or overgrown fences in the vicinity. Such 



STRAWBERRY INSECTS 375 

cover furnishes excellent winter protection to the beetles and 
makes their control unnecessarily difficult. Whenever the 
plants are sprayed with Bordeaux mixture for the control of 
fungous diseases while they are in bud, arsenate of lead at the 
rate of 4 pounds to 100 gallons should be added and would 
probably help to decrease the numbers of beetles. Applied 
at that time there could be no danger of poisoning the fruit. 

Some growers mow their vines soon after picking and, after 
the tops have dried, scatter straw lightly over the field and 
then burn it over. In this way many of the grubs are destroyed, 
but there is considerable danger of injuring the plants unless 
the work is done very carefully. 

Probably the best results in the control of the strawberry 
weevil can be obtained by clean cultivation, by the destruction 
of the hibernating quarters of the beetles, and by the planting 
of varieties with imperfect flowers for the main crop interspersed 
with a few rows of staminate-flowered plants or by selecting 
profusely blossoming varieties. The other measures may be 
used when local conditions make them desirable. 

References 

Chittenden, Ins. Life, V, pp. 167-186. 1893. 
Chittenden, Ins. Life, VII, pp. 14-23. 1894. 
N. C. Dept. Agr. Ent. Circ. 12. 1904. 
Chittenden, Bur. Ent. Circ. 21, rev. ed. 1908. 
N. J. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 225, pp. 8-17. 1909. 



The Tarnished Plant-bug 

Lygus pratensis Linnaeus 

This inconspicuous brownish sucking plant-bug is widely 
distributed throughout the northern hemisphere, occurring in 
North America, Europe and Asia. It is a general feeder, 
attacking a great variety of cultivated and wild plants. In 



376 



FRUIT INSECTS 




Fig. 328. — Tip of peach nursery tree injured by 
the tarnished plant-bug. 



feeding it punctures the buds and tender growing tips with 

the sharp bristles of its beak, and sucks out the plant juices; 

at the same time it apparently injects into the wound some 

substance poisonous 
to the plant which 
kills the surrounding 
tissue. Peach nurs- 
ery stock is particu- 
larly liable to injury. 
The bugs attack and 
kill the tender tips 
(Fig. 328), causing 
the tree to throw 
out lateral branches 
which are in turn 

similarly injured, producing an overly branched, scrubby tree 

which cannot be sold as first-class stock. Pear and apple 

stock are often attacked, but seem able to outgrow the injury 

more easily than peach. 

As a strawberry pest the tarnished 

plant-bug often causes considerable 

loss by puncturing the young fruits 

before the receptacle expands. Ber- 
ries thus injured remain small and 

hard and turn dark colored ; when 

the injury is only partial, they become 

deformed at one side or knobbed at 

the tip ; in either case they are unfit 

for the market. This injury is known FlG - The tarnished 

J J plant-bug (X 4^). 

to the growers as buttoning. 

The tarnished plant-bug has been known to injure the pear 
crop severely by puncturing and killing the opening buds and 
blossoms. It has been known to deposit its eggs in young 
apples, causing scars which persist as dimples in the mature 




STRAWBERRY INSECTS 377 

fruit. Among florists it is recognized as a serious enemy of 
asters, chrysanthemums and dahlias. 

The adult tarnished plant-bug (Fig. 329) is about J inch in 
length, inconspicuously colored, dull yellowish or greenish 
mottled with reddish-brown. The males are generally much 
darker than the females. In the North the insect hibernates 
in the adult state under trash, in stone piles, and along fences ; 
farther south the older nymphs are said to survive the winter. 
About the time the buds burst, the adults appear on tender 
foliage of all sorts, where they feed on the sap. They are very 
active, taking flight at the slightest 
alarm. The female inserts her eggs 
(Fig. 330) the full length singly or in 
small groups in punctures in the 
tender growing tips or in the petioles 
and veins of the leaves. In late sum- 
mer eggs are laid in the flower heads 

&& Fig. 330. — Eggs of the 

01 aster and Other composite plants, tarnished plant-bug in posi- 

The egg is a little less than A- inch * ion * n a tender P each ti P 

& Zb (X 11). 

in length, flask-shaped, truncate at the 

outer end, which is provided with a cap. The time required for 

the hatching of the egg is about ten days. 

The yellowish-green nymphs pass through five stages before 
attaining wings : the first and second stages are unspotted ; the 
third to fifth are marked with distinct black spots on the thorax 
and abdomen. The time spent in the nymph state is about 
one month. There are probably several generations each 
year, as adults and nymphs of all stages are found from May 
till heavy frost in the fall. 

The tarnished plant-bug has been found a very difficult 
insect to control, owing to its wide range of food-plants, which 
includes such common weeds as golden rod, wild carrot, wild 
asters and mullein, and to the fact that a large part of the injury 
is done by the adults which are so shy and active that it is 




378 



FRUIT INSECTS 



difficult to hit them 
with a spray. Much 
may be done, how- 
ever, to lessen their 
numbers by keeping 
down all weeds, not 
only in the field itself, 
but along fences and 
in other waste land. 
Stone piles and fences, 
rubbish heaps, sodded 
driveways and near- 
by woodlands furnish 
hibernating quarters 
for the adults, and 
should be avoided 
whenever possible. 
The young may be 
killed by spraying 
with kerosene emul- 
sion or tobacco ex- 
tract and soap, but 
this treatment is not 
effective against the 
adults. It has been 
suggested that in 
nurseries and straw- 
berry beds the adults 
may be captured by 
means of a butterfly net. While this method may be useful in 
the small garden, it is not adapted for use on a large scale. 
The control of the tarnished plant-bug in the nursery, on 
asters when grown for seed and in commercial strawberry fields 
is still an unsolved problem. 




Fig. 331. — Egg of the tarnished plant-bug 
inserted near the tip of a peach nursery tree ; 
the terminal bud has been killed by the feeding 
punctures of the bugs. Enlarged. 



STRAWBERRY INSECTS 379 

References 

Forbes, 13th Rept. State Ent. 111., pp. 115-135. 1884. 

Mo. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 47. 1899. 

Back and Price, Jour. Ec. Ent. V, pp. 329-334. 1912. 

In Florida a small dark brown sucking bug with light- colored 
wings and brownish legs, Pamera vincta Say, attacks straw- 
berries, sucks out the contents of the ovaries and causes a 
buttoning of the fruit like that produced by the tarnished 
plant-bug. A similar injury is caused by the leaf -footed plant- 
bug (Leptoglossus phyllopus Linnaeus). Satisfactory methods 
of controlling these insects have not been worked out, but the 
suggestions given above for fighting the tarnished plant-bug 
may be found of value. 

Reference 

Fla. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 42, pp. 564-577, 581-583. 1897. 

The Strawberry Thrips 

Euthrips tritici Fitch 

This is the commonest and most widely distributed species 
of thrips in this country and occurs abundantly in the flowers 
of almost any wild or cultivated plant. Destructive outbreaks 
in strawberry fields have been reported from Illinois and 
Florida. 

The adult thrips is a slender insect about ^V mcn m length, 
usually brownish-yellow in color, although very variable in this 
respect, and is provided with two pairs of narrow wings mar- 
gined with a row of long hairs ; the immature stages closely 
resemble the adult in general form, but are wingless and are 
of a lighter or clearer yellow color. 

The thrips appear on the strawberry plants in early spring, and 
as soon as the buds open are found in the flowers. Their mouth 
parts are intermediate between the sucking and biting types. 



380 FRUIT INSECTS 

In feeding they rasp or chafe away the epidermis of the ten- 
derest parts of the flower, and then suck up the sap. The 
delicate pistils suffer most severely from their attacks ; they 
turn black, wilt, and the development of the ovary is prevented. 
In severe cases the whole blossom wilts and dries up within a 
few days after opening ; when only part of the ovaries are 
destroyed, the fruit may mature, but undersized, misshapen 
and distorted berries only are produced. 

The female inserts her minute, whitish, oblong, curved eggs 
singly in the lower part of the calyx and in the flower stalk. 
They hatch in about three days. The nymphs pass through 
three immature stages and acquire wings at the third molt. 
Only about twelve days are required for the complete life- 
cycle from egg to adult. There are several generations each year. 

Control. 

Injury by thrips is usually most severe in seasons of drought, 
as driving rains destroy great numbers of the insects in all 
stages of development, except the eggs. Experiments in 
Florida have shown that this pest can be readily destroyed by 
thorough spraying with tobacco extract, at intervals as the 
abundance of the insects require. " Black Leaf 40" tobacco 
extract should be diluted at the rate of 1 part in 1000 parts 
of water for this purpose. To make the liquid spread and stick 
better, 2 pounds of soap should be added to each 50 gallons. 

References 

Fla. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 42, pp. 552-564. 1897. 
Fla. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 46, pp. 80-103. 1898. 

Ground-beetles 

Harpalus caliginosus Fabricius and H. pennsylvanicus Dejean 

These two common species of the familiar black ground- 
beetles (Fig. 332) have been reported as injuring the fruit of 



STRA WBERRY INSECTS 



381 



the strawberry in Pennsylvania, Ohio and Iowa. The favorite 
haunts of these beetles are under stones and rubbish on the 
ground, hence the usual mulch on a strawberry bed forms an 
ideal lurking place for them. The larvae are said to be preda- 
ceous, and the beetles themselves have been generally considered 
as beneficial insects. While their favorite food consists of other 
insects, they are often seen in the fall on ragweed, feeding on 




Fig. 332. — Male and female of a ground-beetle, Harpalus caliginosus (x 2). 

the seeds. Both species are attracted to electric lights, where 
they often occur in immense numbers. Very little is known 
in regard to the life history or habits of the early stages of these 
beetles, and no explanation has been offered to account for 
their sudden appearance in such numbers in strawberry beds. 

As strawberry pests these beetles have been known to destroy 
a crop almost completely in a day or two. They hide during 
the day by thousands beneath the straw mulch and emerge 
at dusk to feed on the seeds of the berries. At first only the 
seeds are eaten (Fig. 333), but later most of the pulp of the ripe 



382 



FRUIT INSECTS 



berries is devoured; even the green berries are attacked. 
When only a small part of the pulp is eaten, the berry is ruined, 
for rot soon ensues. In one case the beetles destroyed T 9 o of 
a crop in two days. 

Treatment. 

Until more is known in regard to the life history and habits 
of these ground-beetles, it is difficult to suggest methods of 
control. In England, where a closely related species attacks 
strawberries, the growers endeavor to protect the vines by 
sinking dishes in the ground baited with pieces of meat. 




Fig. 333. — Strawberries showing the destructive work of ground-beetles ; at 

the extreme right is an uninjured fruit. 

References 

. Webster, Can. Ent. XXXII, pp. 265-271. 1900. 
Cornell Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 190, pp. 150-154. 1901. 



The Strawberry Root-louse 

Aphis j 'orb est Weed 

This destructive enemy of the strawberry is closely related 
to and sometimes confused with the well-known melon aphis. 
It is widely distributed throughout the states east of the Rocky 
Mountains from Louisiana to Minnesota and New Hampshire, 
but the most destructive outbreaks have been reported from 



STRAWBERRY INSECTS 383 

Illinois, Ohio, Maryland and Delaware. Its presence in a field 
is sometimes first indicated by the drying out of plants in certain 
spots; in other cases the plants generally have an unthrifty 
look, and the fruit remains small and fails to ripen. It has been 
found more troublesome on light sandy soils. 

The insect passes the winter as shining black elongate oval 
eggs attached to the leaves and leaf stems of the strawberry plant. 
These winter eggs hatch in early spring, giving rise to wingless 
females which, when mature, give birth to living young. These 
are all females, and reproduction continues agamically through- 
out the growing season, males not appearing till the advent of 
cold weather in the fall. At first the lice feed exclusively on 
the leaves and tender parts of the plants above ground, but 
about the last of April in Delaware the little brown ant, also 
known as the corn-field ant (Lasius niger americanus) becomes 
abundant and carries many of the young aphids down to the 
roots, where colonies are established that soon sap the vitality 
of the plant. The ants feed on the honey-dew secreted by the 
aphids and care for them somewhat as we do for our domestic 
animals. In case the plant dies or the roots become over- 
crowded, they transfer their "cows" to green pastures on some 
near-by plant. 

Most of the aphids are wingless, but when the supply of food 
becomes insufficient, winged forms are produced that fly to 
neighboring fields where they are found by ants, and new colonies 
are established on the roots. In Delaware these winged females 
are most abundant in May and in June. The aphids multiply 
with marvelous rapidity, one generation following another 
about every two weeks. At the approach of cold weather 
males and egg-laying females are produced ; the latter deposit 
the winter eggs on the leaves and leaf stems above ground. 

Means of control. 

Much of the loss caused by the strawberry root-louse can be 
avoided by setting clean plants on uninfested land. It is not 



384 FRUIT INSECTS 

advisable to plant strawberries continuously on the same land ; 
some other crop should intervene. As soon as beds are 
abandoned, they should be plowed up and not left as centers 
of infestation for surrounding fields. Burning over the field 
in early spring before any of the eggs have hatched has been 
recommended as a satisfactory means of control, and doubtless 
would be one of value under some conditions. 

Whenever possible, plants for setting should be taken from 
uninfested fields, but when that is not practicable, they should 
be freed of the aphids before planting. Wait till all the eggs 
have hatched in the spring, and then dip the plants, roots and 
tops, in tobacco decoction, or nicotine extract, one part in 
1000 parts of water, or they may be fumigated with hydro- 
cyanic acid gas, using 1 ounce per 100 cubic feet of space for 10 

minutes. 

Reference 

Del. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 49, pp. 3-13. 1900. 

The Strawberry Crown-moth 

Sesia rutilans Henry Edwards 

On the Pacific slope the strawberry, blackberry and rasp- 
berry are subject to injury from the attacks of a borer, the larva 
of a clear-wing moth. The dirty white, brown-headed cater- 
pillar, three fourths inch in length when full-grown, burrows in 
the crown and causes the plant to wilt, dry up and die. 

In the southern part of their range the moths are on the wing 
during May and June, being most abundant the last of May; 
in Washington they are abroad in July. The female moth has 
an expanse of nearly an inch ; the body is black, marked with 
yellow lines and bands ; the fore wings are blackish-brown with 
yellow rays along the veins. The hind wings are transparent 
with a narrow border of brown-black. The male is smaller and 
has the transparent areas of the wings larger. The moths are 



STRAWBERRY INSECTS 385 

active in the bright sunlight, and when flying are easily mistaken 
for wasps. The female is said to deposit her egg on the straw- 
berry crown at the base of the leaves. The caterpillar burrows 
into the crown, at first feeding near the surface, but later eats 
out the whole interior of the main root, thus killing the plant. 
It hibernates in the nearly full-grown condition, completes its 
growth the following spring and pupates in the upper part of its 
burrow in a slight silken cocoon into which are incorporated 
bits of frass. When ready to transform to the adult, the pupa 
works itself part way out of the cocoon, and on the escape of the 
moth the empty pupal skin is left projecting from the opening 
of the burrow. There is only one brood a year. 

Remedial measures. 

Throughout its development the larva, feeding on the interior 
of the crown, is out of reach of poisons. No better remedy has 
been suggested than to pull up and burn infested plants before 
the moths emerge. Strawberry beds which are to be abandoned 
should be plowed under after harvesting the last crop, and not 
left as breeding places for the moths. Observations in Cali- 
fornia indicate that a large percentage of the borers can be killed 
by submerging the beds for four or five days in winter or early 
spring. This method may be found of value in irrigated dis- 
tricts. 

References 

Wash. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 35, pp. 13-17. 1898. 
Chittenden, Bur. Ent. Bull. 23, pp. 85-90. 1900. 

Strawberry crown-miner. 

A small lepidopterous caterpillar has been occasionally re- 
ported in Illinois and Canada as injuring the strawberry by 
mining the crown. This insect has been considered as identical 
with the peach-twig borer (Anarsia lineatella Zeller), but is 
probably a distinct species. The life history of this insect has 

not been fully worked out. The reddish-pink caterpillar about 

2c 



386 FRUIT INSECTS 

\ inch in length apparently passes the winter in a partly 
grown condition, inside a silky case in its burrow in the crown ; 
completes its growth the following spring and pupates in May 
or June. There is apparently only one generation annually. 

The Strawberry Crown-girdler 

Otiorhynchus ovatus Linnaeus 

While the larvae of this beetle often injure strawberry plants 
by eating off the roots near the crown, whence the name girdler, 

it has attracted more at- 
tention from the annoy- 
ing habit the beetles have 
of invading dwellings in 
search of shelter. The 
insect occurs in the 
Northern states and 
Canada and is widely 

Fig. 334. - - Beetle of the strawberry crown- distributed in Europe 
girdler (x9). . ^ 

and northern Asia. 
The full-grown grub is \ inch or less in length, whitish in color 
with a yellowish head, and is strongly curved. The grubs feed 
on the roots of the strawberry, cutting them off near the crown, 
but as a rule do not burrow into the crown like the crown-borer. 
They also attack the roots of various grasses, white clover, 
wild strawberry and related plants. Badly infested strawberry 
plants are killed outright. The time required for the grubs to 
reach maturity has not been determined. When full-grown the 
grub constructs a small earthen cell within which it, transforms 
to a whitish pupa and later to an adult. The latter is a very 
dark brown, almost black, snout-beetle, about T 3 F inch in length 
(Fig. 334). The beetles are unable to fly; the wings are ab- 
sent and the wing-covers have grown together so they cannot be 
opened for flight. They often congregate in great numbers 




STRAWBERRY INSECTS 387 

around the base of the plant, and frequently burrow into the 
surrounding soil. The beetles feed on the foliage of various 
plants, and when abundant may seriously injure newly set straw- 
berry plants. The female deposits her minute whitish, oval 
eggs either on the surface of the ground or in her burrows in the 
soil among the roots. The eggs hatch in about twenty days. 

The number of generations a year is not known, but that there 
are probably two is indicated by the fact that the swarms of 
beetles occur as a rule in June and again in August and Septem- 
ber, but pupae and larvae of various sizes may be found through- 
out the season. The insect passes the winter both as larvae 
in the soil and as beetles hidden away in sheltered places. 

Treatment. 

Injury from the crown girdler may be avoided in large measure 
by adopting the one-crop system of strawberry culture and by 
planting only on or near land which is not infested. As the 
grubs feed on the roots of various grasses, including timothy, 
it is not advisable to plant on land recently in sod. An immune 
crop, like potatoes, should intervene. The beetles may be kept 
from injuring the leaves of newly-set strawberry plants by thor- 
ough applications of arsenate of lead, which seems to act merely 
as a repellent. In cases where the plants were protected in this 
way the beetles have been known to enter the soil, and devour 
the roots, thus rendering these measures of little value. 

References 

Mont. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 55, pp. 130-142. 1904. 
Me. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 123. 1905. 



Black Vine-weevil 

Otiorhynchus sulcatus Fabricius 

This European weevil was apparently introduced into the 
Eastern states many years ago, and now occurs throughout the 



388 FRUIT INSECTS 

northern part of the country to the Pacific. The injury to the 
roots and crown of the strawberry are similar to that inflicted by 
the preceding species. The beetle is considerably larger, | inch 
in length, and black in color ; the wing-covers are marked with 
small patches of yellowish hairs. The insect is said to hibernate 
in the larval stage, -the beetles appearing in April and May. In 
both the larval and adult conditions it sometimes becomes 
troublesome in greenhouses, attacking cyclamens, gloxinias, 
primulas, geraniums and other plants. 

Its injuries may be prevented by the same measures as sug- 
gested for the crown girdler. 

The Strawberry Crown-borer 

Tyloderma fragarice Riley 

In the Upper Mississippi Valley strawberry plants are often 
seriously injured by the larva of a snout-beetle which burrows 
in the crown. It is a native insect and first attracted attention 
about 1871. The chestnut-brown beetles, about -J- inch in length, 
emerge from hibernation in early spring, and the female deposits 
her small, elongate, yellowish- white eggs in the plant at or near 
the surface of the ground, singly, in cavities which she excavates 
with her beak. After the egg is in place, she plugs the opening 
with earth or bits of plant tissue. Oviposition continues until 
after the middle of June. 

On hatching, the grub burrows downward through the crown, 
and by the time it is full-grown has eaten out a considerable 
portion of the contents. From one to three grubs may infest 
a plant ; in the latter case only the shell of the crown is left. 
When full-grown the grub is about J inch in length, white with 
a yellowish head. They become mature from the first part of 
July till early August, and all transform to beetles the same 
season. The transformation takes place within the crown, 
after which the beetles remain some time in the burrow in order 



STRAWBERRY INSECTS 389 

to fully harden and then escape. At the approach of winter 
they go into hibernation in the soil. There is but one brood a 
year. 

Treatment. 

By adopting the one-crop system of strawberry culture and 
by placing new beds at some distance from infested fields, the 
injury caused by the crown-borer may be largely prevented. 
The beetles are unable to fly, and their spread from one field to 
another is consequently slow. If the new plants are dug in the 
spring before the eggs are laid there is little danger of introduc- 
ing the pest into new beds unless some of the hibernating beetles 
are carried over in the soil adhering to the roots. 

References 

Forbes, 12th Rept. St. Ent. 111., pp. 64-75. 1883. 
Ind. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 33, pp. 41-43. 1890. 

A closely related species (Tyloderma foveolatum Say), which 
commonly breeds in the stems of the evening primrose and 
willow herb, has been reported as a serious pest of the strawberry 
in British Columbia. The grubs attack the crown like the fore- 
going species. 

Reference 

Fletcher, Rept. Ent. Bot. for 1897, p. 204. 1898. 



Fuller's Rose Beetle 

Aramigus fulleri Horn 

This well-known and destructive greenhouse pest occurs from 
the Atlantic to the Pacific and has been introduced into the 
Hawaiian Islands. In California the grubs have caused severe 
injury to strawberry plants and sometimes attack the roots 
of blackberries and loganberries. 

The adult is a grayish-brown snout-beetle (Fig. 335) with an 



390 



FRUIT INSECTS 



oblique whitish bar on each wing-cover. The beetles feed on 
the foliage of a large number of cultivated and wild plants and 
have been known to eat off the stems of apples, causing the fruit 
to drop. 

The female deposits her smooth, yellow, ovoid eggs, about 
2V inch in length, in flattened clusters of ten to sixty in crevices . 
at the base of the strawberry plant (Fig. 336). On hatching 
the grubs descend into the ground, where 
they at first devour the slender roots and 
later burrow into the crown, killing the 
plant. When full-grown the grub is 
about J inch in length, milk white in 

color, and strongly 

arched. When 

mature they leave 

the crown and 

transform to pupae 

in earthen cells, 

two to five inches 

below the surface 

of the ground. 

The length of time Fig. 336. — Egg-mass 
tti 00c m 11 ' , • ,, -of Fuller's rose beetle. 

Fig. 335. — Fuller s rose spent in the Van- Xnieht nhoto Enlarged 
beetle. Knight photo. * ., Knight photo. Enlarged. 

ous stages has not 
been definitely determined. There are probably several broods 
a year. The adults sometimes riddle the leaves of citrus trees, 
especially in nurseries. 

Treatment. 

The injuries occasioned by this insect may be prevented by 
adopting a short rotation system of strawberry culture and by 
shifting the beds to new, uninfested land. The beetles have 
no functional wings and their natural spread to new fields is 
consequently slow. A careful watch should be kept of the 
newly set plants in April and May, and as soon as any begin to 





STRAWBERRY INSECTS 391 

look sickly or die they should be removed and destroyed. If 
the work is done carefully, many of the grubs will adhere to the 
roots. 

Experiments in California have shown that a large percentage 
of the grubs can be killed without injury to the plants by in- 
jecting one third ounce of carbon bisulfide into the soil every 
18 inches in the rows. This should be done early in the season 
before any of the grubs have transformed. This treatment is 
too laborious and expensive for use on a large scale. 

References 

Riley, Rept. U. S. Ent. for 1879, pp. 255-257. 1880. 
Chittenden, Bur. Ent. Bull. 27, pp. 88-96. 1901. 
Maskew, Bur. Ent. Bull. 44, pp. 46-50. 1904. 
Van Dine, Haw. Agr. Exp. Sta. Press Bull. 14. 1905. 

The Strawberry Root-worms 

The larvae or grubs of three species of small leaf-beetles at- 
tack the roots of the strawberry and frequently cause con- 
siderable loss, especially in old beds. While the beetles are 
easily separated the grubs are so much alike that it is very diffi- 
cult to distinguish the different kinds and they are therefore 
known collectively as the strawberry root-worms. When ma- 
ture they are from J to •§• inch in length, white with a pale yellow- 
ish-brown head and first segment and are strongly curved like 
the common white-grub. Although the injury inflicted by the 
various species is practically the same, they differ considerably 
in habits and life history. 

Typophorus canellus Fabricius 

This is the most abundant and destructive of the root-worms 
and is often referred to as the strawberry root-borer. The 
beetles are about J inch in length and vary greatly in 
coloration from nearly black to reddish-yellow with blackish 



392 



FRUIT INSECTS 



spots on the wing-covers; the latter vary greatly in size, 
shape and distinctness. The beetles hibernate under mulch 
or other convenient shelter and become active in early 
spring. They feed voraciously on strawberry leaves and 
show a special fondness for the opening leaves of the red 
raspberry, occasionally attacking blackberries (Fig. 337). 
The leaves of young strawberry plants are sometimes riddled 

and we have seen red 
raspberries so com- 
pletely defoliated in 
May that the canes 
were killed back 
nearly to the ground. 
They are most abun- 
dant in late May and 
early June, at which 
time most of the eggs 

* ^ %+ " ■}* f are P r °bably laid on 

inoj! or near the surface of 

the ground near the 
plants. The grubs 
burrow through the 
soil, feeding on the 
roots, and become 
full-grown during July 
and August. When mature they construct small smooth-lined 
earthen cells, within which the transformation to the pupa and 
later to the adult takes place. The beetle remains some time 
in the cell in order jbo become fully hardened and then emerges 
to feed on the leaves for a time before going into hibernation 
at the approach of cold weather. Most of the beetles emerge 
during August, but a few stragglers may appear later. There is 
but one brood a year. 





Fig. 33', 



Blackberry vines injured by straw- 
berry root-worm beetles. 



STRAWBERRY INSECTS 393 

Graphops pubescens Melsheimer 

This beetle is about | inch in length, of a metallic cop- 
pery color and is sparsely clothed with a grayish pubescence. 
The beetles are most abundant and deposit eggs from June 
till August. The grubs become mature before cold weather 
and construct earthen cells in which they pass the winter 
in the larval condition. Pupation occurs in May and June 
and the beetles begin to emerge in early June. Beetles are 
sometimes taken as early as March, but those probably hiber- 
nated as adults. There is only one brood a year. 

Colaspis brunnea Fabricius 

This is also occasionally a grape pest. The grubs are some- 
times found feeding on the roots of the strawberry. 

Treatment for root-worms. 

The losses occasioned by root-worms may be avoided in great 
measure by adopting a short rotation in growing strawberries. 
New beds should be planted on uninfested land and should be 
isolated from the older beds. Injury to the leaves by the beetles 
may be prevented by thorough spraying with arsenate of lead, 
4 to 6 pounds in 100 gallons of water, as soon as the beetles 
appear. Of course this poison could not be used with safety 
after the fruit has attained much size. 

Reference 
Forbes, 13th Rept.St. Ent. 111., pp. 150-177. 1884. 

White Grubs 
Lachnosterna (several species) 

White grubs are without doubt the most troublesome and 
destructive pests with which the strawberry grower has to con- 
tend. These large, thick-bodied, strongly curved, dirty-white 



394 



FRUIT INSECTS 




Fig. 



338. — A 
grub. 



white 



grubs (Fig. 338) thrive in grass land, and their abundance is 
favored by a long rotation. They feed on the roots of grasses, 

grains, corn, potatoes, beets and other 
root crops and are often destructive to 
nursery stock. We have seen roots of 
apple stock so badly eaten that the 
young trees could be easily lifted from 
the ground with the thumb and finger. 
Strawberries planted on infested land are 
sure to suffer severely. 

White grubs are the larvae of several 
closely related species of the common 
large brownish May beetles or June-bugs 
(Figs. 340 and 341). They belong to 
several species, but so far it has been impossible to distinguish 
them in the larval stage. The life histories of the various 
species are, so far as known, 
very similar. The parent bee- 
tles appear in vast swarms in 
May and June and attract at- 
tention by their habit of coming 
to lights. They hide in the 
fields during the day, but at 
dusk migrate in swarms to 
near-by trees of various kinds, 
where they feed on the leaves ; 
at daybreak they return to the 
fields. The female burrows in 
the soil and deposits her eggs 
singly or in small groups in the 
ground one to three inches from the surface. The soil ad- 
heres to the egg, thus forming a compact oval ball. The eggs 
hatch in ten to eighteen days and the grubs feed during the re- 
mainder of the season on the roots of their food-plants at an aver- 




Fig. 339. — A white grub in its cell in 
the ground. Knight photo. 



STBAWBEBRY INSECTS 



395 



age depth of about three inches. At the approach of cold 
weather they burrow deeper and hibernate at an average depth 
of ten inches. A few, however, may remain near the surface, 
while others may descend to a depth of two feet or more. They 
return to the roots in early spring and complete their growth by 
June or July. The grub then constructs an oval earthen cell 
(Fig. 339) a few inches below the surface within which it soon 
transforms to a delicate helpless pupa. The insect remains in 
this condition till August or September and then transforms to 




Fig. 340. — Two species of June-beetles, 
the adults of the white grub, Lachnosterna 
ilicis and L. hirticula. 




Fig. 341. — A June-beetle, 
Lachnosterna fusca. 



the adult or beetle. As a rule, these beetles remain in the pupal 
chamber till the following May Or June. It is thus seen that 
while the grubs mature in about two years the whole life-cycle 
from egg to egg requires three years. 

Treatment. 

White grubs are most abundant in land which has been for 
some time in sod or has been occupied by old strawberry beds. 
Strawberries should never be planted on badly infested land ; 
owing to lack of other food, the grubs concentrate on the straw- 
berry roots and soon kill the plants. Clover is not attacked to 
any great extent by white grubs, and may be used to advantage 
as an intervening crop between sod and strawberries. Much 



396 FRUIT INSECTS 

of the loss occasioned by white grubs can be avoided by adopting 
the one-crop system of strawberry culture and alternating with 
some crop more or less immune, such as beans or peas. In the 
South sweet potatoes are often raised as an alternate crop. 
Experiments in Illinois have shown that hogs are of great value 
in cleaning up badly infested fields in the fall. 

When newly set plants show by their lack of vigor that grubs 
have attacked the roots there is nothing to do but to dig out 
and kill the culprit by hand. This will pay in small beds, but is 
too expensive and laborious to be practicable in large fields. 

References 

Forbes, 18th Rept. State Ent. 111., pp. 109-144. 1894. 
111. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 116. 1907. 

Other Strawberry Insects 

Oblique-banded leaf-roller : apple, p. 65. 
Flea-beetles : apple, p. 203. 
Raspberry leaf-roller : raspberry, p. 321. 
Negro bug : raspberry, p. 324. 
Rose chafer : grape, p. 397. 



CHAPTER XIII 
GRAPE INSECTS 

The relative importance of the insect enemies of the grape 
varies greatly from year to year in different regions of the 
country. In the eastern United States root worms are present 
in injurious numbers only along the shores of Lake Erie, yet 
Quaintance, in 1909, estimated the loss occasioned by them at 
over two million dollars. 

The rose chafer is destructive only in sandy regions ; leaf- 
hoppers are always present in most vineyards, but severe out- 
breaks alternate with extended periods of relative immunity; 
some whole sections are exempt from injury by the berry-moth, 
while in others it often occasions serious loss and the blossom 
midge has a very restricted range. Trellised vines are easily 
sprayed, and this method of controlling cape insects is prac- 
ticed by commercial vineyardists whenever practicable. 

The Rose Chafer 

Macrodactylus subspinosus Fabricius 

About the time grapes are in blossom vineyards located in 
sandy regions are often invaded by a hungry host of ungainly, 
long-legged, grayish-brown beetles (Fig. 342) about an half inch 
in length that first devour the blossom-buds and blossoms and 
then attack the newly set fruit and the foliage (Figs. 343 and 
344) . The rose chafer does not confine its attacks to the grape, 
but also feeds on the blossoms of the apple, pear, plum, black- 
berry, raspberry, strawberry and many other fruits; on the 

397 m 



398 



FRUIT INSECTS 



rose, hence its common name, and on many wild trees, such 
as sumac, elder and the wild thorn. It is generally distributed 
from Maine to Colorado and southward to Georgia and New 
Mexico, but has attracted attention as a grape pest particularly 
in New York, New Jersey, Michigan, Ohio and Pennsylvania. 
It is most troublesome in sandy regions, especially in vineyards 

surrounded by waste grass 
lands, in which the larvae 
find abundant food. 

The beetles emerge from 
the ground about the time 
grapes are ready to blossom, 
that is, about the middle of 
June in New York and in 
the latter half of May in 
southern New Jersey. 
They usually make their 
appearance in the vineyard 
suddenly and often in count- 
less swarms. They feed at 
first on the blossom buds 
or blossoms and later at- 
tack the newly set fruit 
and the foliage. The de- 
struction of the blossom 
causes thin scraggly clusters 
that are often scarcely worth picking. The berries that have 
been eaten into when small often show the seeds protruding 
from the wound later in the season. The injury to the foliage 
is rarely severe enough to cause serious damage although the 
leaves are often riddled by the beetles and have a tattered and 
ragged appearance. The beetles usually remain, feeding on 
the vines for ten days or two weeks and then migrate to other 
plants then in blossom. 




Fig. 342. — Male rose chafer (X 3). 



GRAPE INSECTS 



399 



The beetles remain mated for long periods, during which the 
female continues feeding. To deposit her eggs she burrows 
into the ground to a depth of three to six inches, sometimes alone 
and sometimes accompanied by the male. The smooth, white, 
oval eggs, about i inch in length, are laid singly in little pockets 
in the soil '(Fig. 344a), which are about two or three times as large 
as the egg. These egg-cells are about J inch apart in the soil. 
The female is said to lay twelve eggs at each oviposition and 




Fig. 343. — Rose chafers feeding on rose buds. 

oviposits normally three times. In New York most of the eggs 
are deposited during the last week of June and the first half of 
July. The eggs hatch in two or three weeks. 

The female selects fight sandy land in which to oviposit ; 
the heavier soils are never infested to any great extent. The re- 
cently hatched grubs are about f inch in length, whitish with yel- 
lowish head and dark brown jaws. They can crawl quite readily 
on the venter and can wriggle along slowly on the back. When 
small the grubs can feed on decaying vegetable matter in the 
soil, but as they grow larger attack the roots of various grasses. 



400 



FRUIT INSECTS 



They become nearly full-grown by November, descend to a 
depth of about a foot and there spend the winter curled up in 
an oval earthen cell. The full-grown grubs (Fig. 345) resemble 
the common white grub of the June-beetle in form and general 
appearance, but are only about f inch in length. In the spring 
they come nearer the surface again and may resume feeding 
for a short time. 

About the last of May or the first of June in New York most 

of the grubs transform to 
pupae in earthen cells three 
to six inches from the surface. 
The pupa (Fig. 346) is about 
f inch in length, yellowish- 
brown in color and has the 
remains of the larval skin ad- 
hering to the posterior end of 
the body. The pupal stage 
lasts from three to four weeks. 
Means of control. 
In sandy regions the rose 
chafer has been found one of 
the most stubborn vineyard 
pests to control. Handpick- 
ing and other mechanical 
methods of destroying the 
beetles have often been re- 
sorted to, but are too expen- 
sive and laborious for use in 
vineyards of any size. Vari- 
ous repellent substances have been tried and have proved of 
little value for the protection of the crop. Attempts to poison 
the beetles with arsenical sprays have been generally un- 
successful because the beetles dislike the poison and avoid 
the sprayed foliage; they swallow only a small quantity of 




Fig. 



344. — Rose chafers feeding 
on newly set grapes. 



GBAPE INSECTS 



401 



the poison and die so slowly that the injury to the crop is 
not prevented. Recent work in western New York, how- 
ever, has shown that if the arsenate of lead is sweetened with 
molasses or glucose, the 
beetles eat it readily and 
many are killed within 
twenty-four hours. At 
present this is the most 
feasible method of con- 
trolling this pest. The 
vines should be sprayed 
thoroughly at the first ap- 



Fig. 345. — Larva of the rose chafer. 





Fig. 344 a. — Eggs of the 
rose chafer in their earthen 
cells ; egg, greatly enlarged. 





Fig. 346. — Rose chafer pupae (x 3). 



pearance of the beetles, using 8 pounds of arsenate of lead to 
100 gallons of water sweetened with two gallons of molasses. 
If the beetles are very abundant, a second application, about 
one week later, is sometimes necessary. 

2d 



402 FRUIT INSECTS 

Much may be done to lessen the number of beetles by thor- 
oughly cultivating the vineyards while the insect is in the pupal 
stage, the last week in May and the first half of June in New 
York. In regions where the pest is troublesome as much as 
possible of the land surrounding the vineyards should be kept in 
cultivated crops and the area of waste grass land should be re- 
duced to a minimum. 

References 

Harris, Insects Injurious to Vegetation, pp. 32-35. 1841. 

Riley, Insect Life, II, pp. 295-302. 1890. 

N. J. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 82. 1891. 

N. Y. (Geneva) Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 331, pp. 530-549. 1910. 

U. S. Bur. Ent. Circ. 11, Rev. Ed. 1909. 

U. S. Bur. Ent. Bull. 97, Pt. III. 1911. 

Hartzell, Jour. Ec. Ent. IV, pp. 419-422. 1911. 

The Vine Chafers 

Anomala lucicola Fabricius ; A. marginata Fabricius, and others 

The beetles of this genus resemble in form their near relative, 
the common June beetle, but are smaller, and the wing-covers 
are usually ornamented with darker markings. At least three 
species occasionally attack the vine. 

The larvae live in the ground, living on the roots of grasses 
and other plants, often in company with the grubs of the 
rose chafer, which they closely resemble. They are, however, 
smoother in appearance and are of a clear, bright, straw-yellow 
color. The beetles emerge from the ground in spring or 
early summer, invade the vineyard in swarms and sometimes 
nearly defoliate the vines. Their ravages may be controlled 
by the same means as recommended for the rose chafer above. 

References 

N. J. Agr. Exp. Sta. Rept. for 1892, pp. 449-450. 1893. 
Lintner, 10th Rept. N. Y. State Ent., pp. 408-413. 1895. 



GRAPE INSECTS 



403 



The Gkape-vine Flea-beetle 
Haltica chalybea Illiger 

Just as the grape buds are ready to burst in the spring they 
are often attacked by a small, dark, glossy, greenish-blue or 
steel-blue beetle a little less than a fifth of an inch in length 
that eats out the contents and thus destroys the future 
cane with its load of 
fruit (Fig. 347). 
During the past 
forty years this flea- 
beetle has caused 
serious injury and 
loss in vineyards in 
widely separated 
parts of the country. 
Its attacks, however, 
are usually confined 
to limited areas and 
are not, as a rule, 
sustained in one lo- 
cality for a series of 
years. It is a native 
American insect and 
occurs from Kansas 
to Massachusetts 
and southward to 
Florida and New 
Mexico. The vari- 
ous species of wild 
grapes and the Vir- 
ginia creeper were 
probably its original 

r i 1 + G " — grape-vine flea-beetle feeding on 

IOOa-plantS. a young grape shoot. Enlarged. 




404 



FRUIT INSECTS 



The beetles hibernate under trash, in grass land around the 
edge of the vineyards and are sometimes found under loose bark 
at the base of the vine. They emerge from hibernation in April 
or in May in New York just as the grape buds are swelling. 




4^4 MM f#*Jl *§:§ 



Fig. 348. — Eggs of the grape-vine flea-beetle under a strip of loose bark (Xl2). 

They soon find their way to the nearest vine and feed voraciously 
on the tender heart of the bursting buds, which they reach by 
gnawing through the protective covering either at the side or 
more commonly at the tips. The beetles do most of their feed- 
ing during the 
warmer part of 
bright sunny days; 
on cold cloudy 
days they hide 
away under any 
convenient shelter. 
Each beetle may 
destroy several 
buds and thus 
cause a loss of fruit 
and foliage all out of proportion to the amount of tissue ac- 
tually consumed. 

After feeding for several days the females begin to deposit 
their elongate, oval, straw-colored eggs, -^ inch in length, beneath 




Fig. 349. — Grubs of the grape-vine flea-beetle (x7). 



GRAPE INSECTS 



405 



the scales surrounding the buds, under the loose bark on the 
canes (Fig. 348), and more rarely in small clusters on the upper 
or under surface of the leaves. Oviposition may continue for 
over forty days and each female may 
deposit from twenty to over one hun- 
dred eggs. The time required for the 
eggs to hatch depends largely on the 
temperature ; eggs laid in April while 
the weather is cool do not hatch very 
much before those laid in June. The 
egg stage may last from twenty to 
sixty days. 

When newly hatched the grubs are 
scarcely a sixteenth of an inch long and 
of a very dark brown color, almost as 
dark as the blackish spots on the body. 
They soon make their way to the young 
leaves, where they begin to eat little 
irregular holes through the skin and 
into the soft inner tissues. They feed 
almost entirely on the upper surface, 
several grubs usually working on the 
same leaf (Fig. 351). Sometimes the 
grubs are numerous enough to riddle 
the foliage quite badly, but the actual 
injury to the vine from their work is 
never serious. The larvae become full- 
grown in between two or three weeks 
and are then about one third inch in 
length, dark yellowish brown in color 
and marked with regular rows of blackish spots ; the head, legs, 
and thoracic and anal shields are black (Fig. 349). In New 
York the grubs are found on the leaves during June and the 
first half of July. 




Fig. 350. — Grubs of 
the grape-vine flea-beetle 
feeding on a blossom 
cluster. 



406 



FRUIT INSECTS 



When the grubs have fed sufficiently they drop from the 
grape leaves, and after working their way from one half an inch 
to two inches into the ground, they twist and roll themselves 
about until a smooth cavity is formed in which a few days later 
the larva transforms to a saffron-yellow pupa (Fig. 352). The 
pupal stage lasts from a week to twelve days. The beetles 







W|%%« 













Fig. 351. — Grubs feeding on a grape leaf. 

emerge from the ground during the latter part of July and after 
feeding for several weeks on the foliage of the grape and other 
plants go into hibernation in the early fall under fallen leaves 
and other rubbish, especially in waste fields and near-by wood- 
lots. 

The grape-vine flea-beetle can be most easily controlled by 
spraying the vines with an arsenical poison between the middle 



GRAPE INSECTS 



407 



of June and the middle of July. The grubs are then feeding on 
the upper surface of the leaves, where they can be easily reached 
with the spray. The poison can be applied to advantage com- 
bined with the Bordeaux mixture generally used at that season 
for the control of fungous diseases. In cases where summer 
spraying has been neglected and 
the beetles are present in the 
spring they may be poisoned by 
spraying the swelling buds very 
thoroughly with a strong arsenical 
mixture, or the beetles may be 
jarred into pans containing a 
little kerosene or on to sheets sat- 
urated with oil. The work of col- 
lecting the beetles must be done 
in the warmer part of bright 
sunny days while the beetles are 
most active, for in the cold raw 
weather it is hard to find them. 
When alarmed the beetles feign 

death and drop at the slightest Fig. 352. — Pupa of the grape- 
ct i i • , i . . vine flea-beetle. Enlarged. 

jar. bnakmg the vines or jarring 

the trellis will cause them to fall for some distance along the 
row. For this reason we have found it most satisfactory to 
collect the beetles in a small pan containing a little kerosene by 
tapping the canes, on which they are feeding, lightly with a 
small stick. As a rule the grape-vine flea-beetle is most 
troublesome in vineyards adjoining woodlots, hedgerows or 
waste land in which the beetles find suitable hibernating shelter. 
Wherever practicable all such conditions should be eliminated. 

References 

Comstoek, Rept. as U. S. Ent., pp. 213-216. 1880. 

Cornell Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 157. 1898. 

N. Y. (Geneva) Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 331, pp. 494-514. 1910. 




408 



FRUIT INSECTS 



The Grape Leaf-hopper 

Typhlocyba comes Say 

The grape leaf-hopper is our most common and widespread 
insect pest of the grape-vine. Practically every vineyard in 
the United States and Canada is infested by the insect, and 




m 





Fig. 353. — Adults of the grape leaf-hopper. 

almost every year it occurs in injurious numbers in one or more 
localities. It has its periods of great destructiveness and of 
comparative obscurity, or its ups and downs, like most of our 
insect pests. Serious outbreaks occurred in New York in 1901 
and 1902, and again in 1911 to 1912. Quayle states that with the 
exception of the phylloxera it is the most destructive insect pest of 



GRAPE INSECTS 



409 




Fig. 354. — Adults of the grape leaf- 
hopper (x3|). 



the vine in California. 

The hoppers, both 

adults and nymphs, 

suck out the sap from 

the under side of the 

leaves, which soon 

turn brown and, if 

badly infested, fall 

prematurely, leaving 

the vines unable to 

ripen their load of 

fruit or properly 

mature the new wood for next year's crop. 

The grape leaf-hopper has been studied most carefully in 

New York and in California. 
The adult hopper (Fig. 355) 
is scarcely an eighth of an 
inch in length, and has the 
back and wings marked in a 
peculiar manner with yellow 
and red. In the winter these 
markings are a dark orange- 
red, but after feeding has 
been resumed for a short 
time in the spring, they 
change to a light lemon- 
yellow. In all parts of the 
country it passes the winter 
in the adult or winged state. 

Fig. 355 - Adult and molted nymph Ag S0Qn ag the leayeg b in 
skin of the grape leaf-hopper (X 11). 

to die and drop from the 
vines in September and October, the active adult hoppers mi- 
grate from the vines and seek winter quarters. Comparatively 
few of them find suitable hibernating places near the vines in 




410 



FRUIT INSECTS 




Fig. 356. — A group of eggs of the grape leaf 
hopper. Greatly enlarged. 



the vineyards, unless neglect has allowed a carpet of weeds 
and grasses to grow. A neighboring tract of woodland or a 
little valley, ditch or swale overgrown with brush, or a border- 
ing strip of thick grass 
form an ideal place for 
hibernation. In New 
York the hoppers do 
not feed during the 
winter, although on 
sunny days during warm 
spells they are some- 
times seen flying about. 
In the milder climate of 
California they feed con- 
siderably during the 
warmer winter days on the leaves of various low-growing plants, 
such as alfilaria and burr-clover, in the shelter of which they 
find protection. 

In New York the adults emerge about May 1, or a little earlier 
if it is warm, and 
begin feeding on 
almost any suc- 
culent growth that 
is available, such 
as young beeches 
and maples in the 
woods, and the 
grasses, strawber- 
ries, dewberries or 
raspberries near 
vineyards. They 
migrate to the 
vines about the middle of May, or as soon as the grape leaves 
are well expanded. The lower leaves are first attacked, and as 




Fig. 357. 



- Nymphs and molted nymph skins of the 
grape leaf -hopper. Enlarged. 



GRAPE INSECTS 



411 




Fig. 358. — Fifth 
stage nymph of the 
grape leaf-hopper. 



the season advances and more foliage appears, the hoppers 
work upward on the vines. They live almost entirely on the 
under side of the leaves (Fig. 353), from 
which they suck their food by means of their 
sharp beaks. They are very active crea- 
tures, leaping or flying quickly when a leaf or 
vine is disturbed. 

The adults feed on the vine for two weeks 
or more before they begin to lay eggs. The 
female hopper is provided with a slender and 
sharp ovipositor, by means of which she in- 
serts the eggs just beneath the lower skin of 
the leaf. The eggs are semitransparent, 
slightly bean-shaped, and about three hun- 
dredths of an inch in length and a third as 
wide (Fig. 356). Egg-laying continues for two months or more, 
and each female may deposit over a hundred eggs. In New 
York the first eggs are laid about the first of June in normal 

years and towards the middle of 
the month in backward seasons. 
The greatest number of eggs are 
to be found in the leaves in late 
June. 

In New York the eggs of the 
overwintering hoppers hatch in 
9 to 14 days, while in California 
it requires 17 to 20 days for the 
same brood and only 8 to 12 
days for the eggs of the second or 
spring brood. The length of the 
egg stage of the second brood has 
not been determined in the East. 
The nymphs, which are of a whitish color with red eyes when 
born, grow slowly and gradually acquire yellowish stripes along 




Fig. 359. — Young aphis-lion about 
to devour a nymph. Enlarged. 



412 



FRUIT INSECTS 



their sides, passing through five stages before acquiring wings 
(Fig. 357). In New York from 30 to 33 days are required for 
the development of the nymph, the first-hatched nymphs trans- 
forming to adults between the first and the middle of July, at 
which time the maximum number of nymphs in all stages are to 
be found on the leaves. In unusually long and warm seasons 
there may be two broods in New York, but as a rule the second 
brood is only partial. In California there are normally two full 
broods, which overlap to a considerable extent. The nymphs 

live on the under 
side of the grape 
leaves and suck 
their food like their 
parents, the adult 
hoppers. They 
first appear on the 
lower and older foli- 
age, where the 
adults begin feed- 
ing, and later they 
infest nearly every 
leaf. The nymphs 
are active little 
creatures, scurrying 
away in all directions when disturbed, and often run to the 
under side of the leaves or along the leaf-stalks as if to 
hide. They are good runners, but, unlike the adults, are 
unable to jump. The effect of the work of the nymphs on 
the leaves is well shown in Figure 361. The upper sur- 
face of the green leaf presents a mottled, yellowish appear- 
ance. Even on badly infested vines, we have never seen the 
leaves so seriously injured by the nymphs in summer as by the 
adult hoppers either in the spring or late summer and autumn. 
Rarely does a leaf turn brown and die from the work of the 




Fig. 360. 



Grape leaves injured by leaf-hoppers 
late in the season. 



GRAPE INSECTS 



413 



nymphs, but the foliage is weakened so much that it falls an easy 
prey to the adult hoppers, into which the nymphs soon develop. 

From August until the grape leaves fall, the adult hoppers 
swarm over the vines, sucking the life from the leaves and smut- 
ting or staining the fruit with their excrement. The loss of the 
foliage prevents the proper ripening of the fruit, which in con- 
sequence never acquires its proper color, flavor or sweetness. 
The devastated parts 
of vineyards are con- 
spicuous from a dis- 
tance as brown blots 
on the landscape dur- 
ing late summer and 
autumn. As the 
leaves are killed, the 
hoppers migrate to 
other vineyards 
where the pasturage 
is better. They rise 
from the vines in 
swarms when dis- 
turbed, and often 
cause the pickers an- 
noyance by getting 
into their eyes and 
ears. With the first 
heavy frosts the adult hoppers leave the vines and seek winter 
quarters in near-by grass lands or woodlots. 

Means of control. 

As a rule, in the East the only really serious injury to the crop 
is the result of the feeding of the nymphs and adult hoppers 
in late summer and early fall. If this can be prevented, most 
of the loss can be avoided. Commercial growers have, there- 
fore, as a rule concentrated their efforts on killing as large a 




Fig. 361. 



— Grape leaf showing the work of the 
grape leaf-hopper nymphs. 



414 FRUIT INSECTS 

proportion of the nymphs as possible in early July, when the 
maximum number is present on the foliage and before many 
have transformed to adults. The nymphs are then easily 
killed by contact insecticides, the only difficulty being in hitting 
them on the under side of the leaves with the spray. At present 
the most satisfactory results have been attained by thorough 
spraying with " Black Leaf 40" tobacco extract, 1 part to 1000 
parts of water. This mixture will kill all the nymphs thoroughly 
wet by the spray. For efficient work it is necessary to use a 
pressure of 125 to 150 pounds per square inch, and care must be 
taken to hit the under side of every leaf on which the nymphs 
are feeding. A fairly coarse spray is desirable, and nozzles of 
the cyclone type having disks of large aperture have given the 
best results; a fine mist spray will not wet the nymphs thor- 
oughly enough to do good work. Sprayers fitted with fixed 
nozzles as are commonly used for vineyard work cannot be used 
against the grape leaf-hopper, as it is impossible to arrange the 
nozzles so as to hit the under side of the leaves with the spray. 
Efficient work, however, can be done by having one or two men fol- 
low the sprayer on foot, carrying a four-foot extension rod at the 
end of which one or two nozzles are so attached as to be directed 
upward. The extension rod is connected with the pump by a 
piece of hose 15 or 20 feet in length. By driving slowly and by 
having careful men to do the work thoroughly, satisfactory 
results in the destruction of the nymphs and the protection of 
the crop can be attained by one properly timed spraying. 

The Geneva Agricultural Experiment Station has recently 
perfected a method of spraying for the grape leaf-hopper, by 
which the necessity of having men to carry the nozzles is dis- 
pensed with. Here the nozzles are mounted on swinging booms 
which are hinged to more or less rectangular frames of f inch 
iron pipe attached to the sides of an ordinary vineyard sprayer. 
There are three booms on each side of the sprayer, each carrying 
a nozzle near the end arranged to throw the spray upward. 



GRAPE INSECTS 415 

A spring holds the boom pressed away from the sprayer so that 
the nozzle is thrown into or under the vines as the sprayer is 
moved along the row, but can swing back when any obstacle 
is encountered. The exact arrangement of the nozzles will 
depend on the age and size of the vines as well as on the style 
of trimming. This apparatus is well adapted for doing efficient 
work in fairly level vineyards, but on steep hillsides, where it is 
impossible to keep the sprayer from swinging down close to the 
lower row, the use of trailing hose and extensions as described 
above will be found more practicable. 

Much good may be accomplished, in preventing leaf-hopper 
injury, by destroying their hibernating quarters in the vicinity 
of vineyards. Grassy fence corners and overgrown hedge rows, 
in which fallen grape leaves are collected by the wind, should 
be removed or burned over. Clean farming also helps to control 
other insects and should be practiced wherever possible. 

As stated above, the adult hoppers begin their work on the 
lower part of the vine, and it is on these lower leaves that great 
numbers of the eggs are deposited early in the season. Many 
of these lower canes or suckers are usually removed in June. 
If this operation could be delayed until just before spraying time, 
the first week in July, great numbers of the eggs would be de- 
stroyed. 

In California, where the adult hoppers are more destructive 
in the spring and where many of the vineyards are not trellised, 
it has been found practicable to capture the adults in mosquito- 
screen cages smeared on the inside with kerosene or crude oil. 
The cages are made large enough to cover a vine; one side is 
left open, but the bottom is covered with a screen, a slit being left 
for the base of the vine. The cages are operated with the open 
side facing the wind ; when the cage is placed in position, the 
vine receives a jar, and the hoppers, trying to escape, are caught 
on the oily screen. It is said that from 85 to 95 per cent of the 
hoppers can be captured by this method. 



416 FRUIT INSECTS 



References 

Harris, Insects Injurious to Vegetation, pp. 183-185. 1841 „ 

Cornell Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 215. 1904. 

Cal. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 198. 1908. 

N. Y. (Geneva) Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 331, pp. 568-579. 1910. 

U. S. Bur. Ent. Bull. 97, Pt. I. 1911. 

N. Y. (Geneva) Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 344. 1912. 

U. S. Bur. Ent. Bull. 116, Pt. I. 1912. 

Bull. U. S. Dept. Agr., 19. 1914. 

A closely related species (Dicraneura cockerelli Gillette) has 
been known to attack the vine in New Mexico. 



The Grape-leaf Skeletonizer 

Harrisina americana Guerin-Meneville 

More often feeding on vines grown in the garden, this native 
American caterpillar rarely becomes of economic importance in 
commercial vineyards. It is generally distributed throughout 
the eastern United States from New England to Florida, and 
westward to Missouri and Arizona, its range extending into Mex- 
ico. Its original food-plants were the Virginia creeper and wild 
grapes. The moths appear on the vines in the spring soon 
after the leaves are fully expanded. They are of a uniform 
blue-black color with a yellow collar, and have an expanse of 
about one inch. The female deposits her small lemon-colored 
oval eggs in loose clusters of one hundred or more on the under 
side of the leaves ; they hatch in a week or ten days. The small 
yellowish white larvae feed on the epidermis of the leaf; they 
remain in colonies and are usually found feeding in rows like 
soldiers in line. Until the larvae reach the fifth instar, only the 
epidermis is consumed. They then eat holes through the leaves, 
devouring all the tissue except the larger veins. The full- 
grown larva is about one half inch in length, sulfur-yellow in 



GRAPE INSECTS 417 

color, marked with four rows of black spots visible from above ; 
the body is clothed with rather long, bristly hairs. The cater- 
pillars attain their growth in about forty days, descend to the 
ground, where they spin a tough white oval cocoon within which 
pupation soon takes place. Some of the pupae may give rise to 
a second brood of moths in about two weeks, while the remainder 
do not transform until the following spring. In the latitude 
of Virginia there are one full and a partial second generation 
annually. 

When infesting a few vines in the garden, it is an easy matter 
to destroy, by hand, the conspicuous colonies of caterpillars. In 
larger vineyards they may be poisoned with arsenate of lead 
or Paris green at the usual strength. 

Reference 
U. S. Bur. Ent. Bull. 68, Pt. VIII. 1909. 



The Grape-vine Sawfly 

Erythraspides pygmcea Say 

Groups of greenish-yellow, black-spotted sawfly larvae are 
sometimes found on the leaves of the vine, feeding in rows like 
the caterpillars of the grape-leaf skeletonizer described above. 
They eat the whole tissue of the leaf, however, beginning at the 
edge and working toward the center. The adults are four- 
winged flies about J of an inch in length, black, with the thorax 
reddish above. The female deposits her eggs in small clusters 
on the under side of the terminal leaves. The larvae feed in 
colonies, and as soon as one leaf is devoured, attack the next one 
below. The mature larva is a little over J inch in length, green- 
ish-yellow in color, with the head and tip of the body black ; 
each segment has two transverse rows of black spots. When 
mature the larvae enter the ground a short distance, where pupa- 
2e 



418 FRUIT INSECTS 

tion takes place within a silk-lined earthen cocoon. There are 
two broods annually, the flies of the second generation appear- 
ing in late July or early August. 

Like the preceding species, the grape sawfly is rarely abundant 
enough to seriously injure the vines. The larva may be killed 
with arsenate of lead or Paris green at the usual strength. 



The Grape Leaf-folder 
Desmia funeralis Hiibner 

The grape leaf-folder is widely distributed throughout the 
eastern United States and Canada and is present in small 
numbers nearly every year in most vineyards. It has at- 
tracted attention by its injuries more particularly from 
southern Illinois southward to Texas and eastward to North 
Carolina and Georgia ; it also occurs in California. 

The parent moths have an expanse of a little less than an inch ; 
the wings are very dark brown, nearly black, with an opalescent 
reflection and are narrowly bordered with white ; in both sexes 
the front wings have two white spots ; there is one white spot 
on the hind wing of the male (Fig. 362) and two, often coales- 
cent, in the female. The body of the female is crossed by two 
white bands, that of the male by only one. 

The moths appear in the vineyards in June, and deposit their 
eggs singly or in small patches on the leaves. The young cater- 
pillars feed on the upper surface of the leaf and soon begin to 
draw over a portion of the leaf with a few strands of silk, 
bringing the two surfaces together and forming a fold. The 
larva remains within the fold until full-grown, feeding on the 
upper epidermis of the leaf, which becomes skeletonized, turns 
brown and dies. The mature larva is grass-green in color and 
is about three fourths of an inch in length ; when disturbed it 
attempts to escape by wriggling from its retreat, and suspends 



GRAPE INSECTS 



419 



itself by a silken thread. The caterpillars become full-grown 
in about a month from the time of hatching, and transform 
within the folded leaf into a brownish pupa about one half of 
an inch in length. The moths emerge in a week or ten days, 
and lay eggs for a second brood. 

There are two broods; the moths of the first appearing in 
June or July, and the second in August or September. The 
winter is passed in the pupa state in the folded leaves on the 
ground. The first brood is comparatively small and its 
work relatively inconspicuous ; the second brood, however, is 
sometimes numerous 
enough to defoliate 
the vines more or less 
completely, and thus 
either prevents the 
proper ripening of the 
fruit or exposes it to 
injury from sun-scald. 
In a few instances 
caterpillars of the 
first brood have been 
observed feeding in the blossom clusters which they had 
webbed together after the manner of the grape-berry moth. 

In California the larva seems to have somewhat different 
habits than in the East. It rolls rather than folds the leaf and 
feeds on the free edge of the leaf inside the roll instead of eating 
off the upper epidermis. 

Treatment. 

The grape leaf-folder can be controlled by spraying the leaves 
with an arsenical poison at the time when the first-brood cater- 
pillars are hatching, taking care to cover evenly the upper 
surface of the leaves. In small vineyards it is often practicable 
to go over the vines and crush by hand the larvae or pupae in 
the folded leaves. 




Fig. 362. — Male moth of the grape leaf- 
f older (X 2f). 



420 FRUIT INSECTS 

References 

Riley, 3d Rept. Ins. Mo., pp. 61-63. 1871. 
U. S. Dept. Agr. Farm. Bull. 284, p. 22. 1907. 
Cal. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 192, pp. 129-132. 1907. 

The Eight-spotted Forester 

Alypia octomaculata Fabricius 

Grape-vines growing in city gardens are especially likely to 
be infested with the caterpillars of the eight-spotted forester 
moth. In commercial vineyards this insect rarely attracts 
attention. In New York the moths fly from the middle of May 
until the middle of June. They have an expanse of about lj 
inches. The wings are velvety-black ; there are two pale yellow 
spots on the front wings, and two white ones on the hind wings ; 
the thorax and abdomen are black, at each side of the thorax 
there is a pale yellowish tuft of hairs. The front and middle 
legs are ornamented with tufts of orange hairs. They are day 
fliers and are often seen hovering over flowers on the nectar of 
which they feed. The full-grown caterpillar is about 1J inches 
in length ; the head is yellowish, spotted with black ; the 
second and third segments have a transverse row of black spots 
and lines. The first segment is pale orange in front ; each seg- 
ment back of the third has a broad central orange band oh each 
side of which there are four narrow black bands ; the second 
and third segments lack the orange band, but are marked with 
the narrow black bands ; each segment is crossed by a row of 
black dots ; below there is a series of white spots on the fourth 
to ninth segments ; there is a rounded hump near the hind end 
of the body. The caterpillars are found on the vine from the 
first of June until the first of August. The caterpillar trans- 
forms to a pupa within a very slight cocoon upon or just below 
the surface of the ground. 



GRAPE INSECTS 421 

In the garden they may be destroyed by hand-picking, or in 
larger vineyards they may be killed by spraying with arsenicals 
while the caterpillars are small. 

References 

Riley, 6th Rept. Ins. Mo., pp. 88-90. 1874. 

Lintner, 5th Rept. State Ent. N. Y., pp. 179-183. 1889. 

The Erinose of the Vine 

Eriophyes vitis Landois 

In central Europe, Italy and in California the leaves of the 
vine are often deformed by attacks of a minute mite. In in- 
fested leaves the portions between the larger veins puff up, leav- 
ing a cavity on the under side which is clothed with a dense 
felt-like covering. As a rule, thin-leaved varieties of grape are 
more subject to attack, or at least show greater evidence of the 
presence of the mite. In California erinose rarely causes seri- 
ous injury to the vine or to the crop ; it has often been confused 
with a fungous disease, the powdery mildew. 

The mite, as usually found on the leaf, is a minute, nearly color- 
less, elongate, four-legged creature, about .13 mm. in length. The 
mites hibernate under loose strips of bark on the larger branches 
of the vine and in the spring migrate to the under side of the 
opening leaves where they puncture the epidermal cells with 
their sharp mandibles, thus producing abnormal thread-like 
outgrowths from the underlying layers of cells, known as erinea. 
These erinea when abundant have the appearance of dense felt, 
and it is in the shelter thus afforded that the mites live, lay their 
eggs and the young find suitable food. From time to time 
individuals leave the older leaves and start new colonies on the 
young leaves at the ends of the branches. In the fall some of 
the mites desert the leaves and go into hibernation on the bark 
of the older canes. 



422 



FRUIT INSECTS 



Control. 

Where sulfuring is practiced for the control of the fungous 
disease known as oidium or powdery mildew, the mites rarely 
cause trouble. In severe infestations it is sometimes advisable 
to destroy the hibernating mites on the stump by pouring over 
it about a quart of boiling water during the dormant season. 



References 

Landois, Zeitsch. f. wiss. Zool. XIV, pp. 353-364. 
Mayet, Insectes de la Vigne, pp. 1-14. 1890. 



1864. 



The Grape Plume-moth 



Oxyptilus periscelidactylus Fitch 

The terminal leaves of the growing shoots of the vine are some- 
times webbed together (Fig. 364) by a small greenish white- 
haired caterpillar, the 
larva of a beautiful 
plume-moth. The 
moths have an ex- 
panse of about seven 
tenths of an inch, yel- 
lowish-brown in color 
and marked with 
many dull whitish 
spots and streaks ; the 
front wings are deeply 
cleft into two lobes and the hind wings divided into three 
lobes (Fig. 363). The entire wing margin is bordered with a 
long whitish or brownish fringe. 

The eggs have not been observed. The caterpillars feed on 
the webbed leaves at the tip of the young shoots arid are said 
to infest the blossom clusters, but have never been abundant 




Fig. 363. — The grape plume-moth (x 3). 



GRAPE INSECTS 



423 



enough to be a serious pest in commercial 
vineyards. They become full-grown the last 
of June or early in July and transform to 
peculiarly shaped green or brownish pupae. 
The pupa is attached obliquely to a leaf 
or stem by the posterior end ; it bears on 
the middle of the dorsal surface a large 
angulate projection. The moths emerge 
in about a week. It is not known whether 
there is a second brood or not, and whether 
the insect hibernates in the egg or adult 
stage. 

No better remedy for this insect than 
hand-picking the caterpillars has been sug- 
gested. In commercial vineyards where 
such methods are impracticable, it does 
little or no harm. 




Fig. 364. — Tip of 
grape shoot webbed 
together by a grape 
plume-moth caterpil- 
lar. Herrick photo. 



Reference 
Lintner, 12th Rept. N. Y. State Ent., pp. 218-222. 1897. 



The Grape-cane Borer 

Schistocerus hamatus Fabricius (Amphicerus bicaudatus Say) 

The smaller shoots of the grape are often tunneled out and 
killed in the spring by a cylindrical dark brown beetle about f 
of an inch in length. This beetle also attacks the apple, peach, 
pear and other fruit-trees, as well as certain ornamental shrubs 
and forest trees. It is also known as the apple-twig borer. 
While widely distributed throughout the United States and 
Canada east of the Rocky Mountains, it has been most trouble- 
some to the grape in the Upper Mississippi Valley, in Iowa, 
Missouri, Kansas and Nebraska. 

The grubs have been found burrowing in dying canes of the 



424 FRUIT INSECTS 

grape, in Tamarix, a much cultivated ornamental shrub, in the 
subterranean stems of the Smilax or cat-briar in the South, and 
in the upturned roots of a maple. The eggs have not been de- 
scribed, but are probably laid on or in the bark of the smaller 
branches, for one observer records having traced the burrow 
to its beginning in such a location. The eggs are probably 
laid in the spring from April till June, for at that time the adults 
are most abundant and active. The burrows of the larva usu- 
ally follow the pith and as a rule are three or four inches in 
length ; they are packed full of the sawdust-like castings of the 
larva. The full-grown grub is whitish with brownish jaws, 
curved and about \ of an inch in length. The time normally 
spent in the larval stage has not been determined. The grub 
transforms to a reddish-brown pupa in a cell at the end of the 
burrow and the adult escapes by gnawing its way out to the 
surface. The adult is a dark brown, cylindrical beetle, a little 
less than f of an inch in length, with the head drawn under the 
thorax so as to be invisible when viewed from above. The 
wing-covers are obliquely truncate behind and in the male 
this declivity is armed with a pair of blunt horn-like processes. 
Larvae and pupae have been found in grape-canes in winter, but 
in the majority of cases the transformation to the beetle takes 
place in the fall. The beetles usually hibernate in the larval 
burrow, but sometimes emerge in the fall and tunnel into the 
branches of various fruit-trees, where they pass the winter. 

As breeding takes place only in dying or diseased branches 
the injury caused by the grubs is not great. The beetles, how- 
ever, are capable of causing great damage, both to the grape 
and to other fruits by their peculiar habit of burrowing into the 
smaller branches, apparently for food and shelter only, as eggs 
are not laid in such situations. 

Much may be done to prevent destructive outbreaks of the 
grape-cane borer by cutting out in the spring all diseased and 
dying canes in which breeding might occur and by burning all 



GRAPE INSECTS 425 

prunings. In case the beetles appear in the vineyard in the 
spring and begin their destructive work, the only recourse is 
to dig them out of the infested branches by hand or to capture 
them before they have entered the canes. 

On the Pacific slope this species is replaced by the closely 
related S. punctipennis Leconte, the larvae of which burrow in 

grape-canes. 

References 

Kansas Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 3, pp. 27-36. 1888. 
Hubbard, Ent. Am. IV, p. 95. 1888. 
Lesne, Ann. Soc. Ent. Fr. LXVII, pp. 513-517. 1898. 
U. S. Dept. Agr. Farm. Bull. 70, pp. 11-13. 1898. 

The Grape-cane Gall-maker 

Ampeloglypter sesostris Leconte 

From Missouri to Ohio and West Virginia grape-canes are 
sometimes injured to a slight extent by the attacks of a reddish- 
brown weevil, the larva of which feeding in the cane just above 
one of the joints produces a swelling or gall from one to one and 
one half inches in length and about twice the diameter of the 
cane in thickness. The insect hibernates in the adult state 
under leaves or other suitable shelter. The weevils emerge 
from winter quarters in May and the female begins egg-laying 
as soon as the vines have made sufficient growth. 

For oviposition she usually selects a place directly above the 
lowest joint which does not bear a fruit cluster. She first 
bores a hole with her snout in the heart of the cane, deposits 
an egg in it and then fills the cavity with bits of bark fiber 
scraped from the surface of the cane. She then makes a row 
of eight to fourteen similar punctures directly above the first 
and fills them with fiber, but does not deposit an egg in any 
except the first. As the gall increases in size this row of punc- 
tures produces an ugly wound which does not heal as long as 
the gall is inhabited. 



426 FRUIT INSECTS 

The egg hatches in a week or ten days. The larva feeds 
principally on the pith, working its way up or down the cane 
for a considerable distance. When full-grown the larva is 
about two fifths inch in length, yellowish- white in color, with 
a brownish head and dark brown jaws. It becomes full-grown 
in eight or ten weeks, pupates within the gall and the beetles 
emerge in August. 

The injuries caused by this insect are never serious ; affected 
canes, unless broken by the wind, continue to grow and are 
able to ripen their fruit as well as those not infested. The 
insect may be killed by cutting out and burning the infested 
canes during July and early August, but ordinarily it would 
not be worth the trouble involved. In vineyards sprayed with 
an arsenical in Bordeaux mixture in late May and June many 
of the beetles are doubtless poisoned. 

References 

Ohio Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 116. 1900. 

W. Va. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 119, pp. 323-329. 1909. 



The Grape-cane Girdler 

Ampeloglypter ater Leconte 

This small black weevil is generally distributed throughout 
the Eastern and Western states, where it usually feeds on 
Virginia creeper. In West Virginia, however, it has recently 
attracted attention as a minor enemy of the grape. 

The beetle emerges from hibernation in May and after 
inserting its egg in a puncture in a growing grape-cane girdles 
the branch below the egg and then usually eats off the tip of the 
branch and one or more of the leaves. These withered tips 
and leaves sometimes give the vine a decidedly ragged appear- 
ance, although the actual injury is not great. 

The eggs hatch in about ten days and the white footless grub 



GRAPE INSECTS 427 

feeds on the pith, becoming full-grown in July. About this 
time the infested cane usually breaks off at the first joint below 
the egg puncture and drops to the ground. Pupation takes 
place in the cane and the beetles emerge in August. 

This insect may be controlled by the same measures as 
suggested for the preceding species. 

Reference 
W. Va. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 119, pp. 330-339. 1909. 

The Cottony Maple Scale 

Pulvinaria vitis Linnaeus 

Grape-vines growing in the shade are sometimes infested by 
this conspicuous and curious scale insect, although it is rarely 
abundant enough to cause injury. The cottony maple scale 
is a native of Europe, probably introduced into this country in 
the early part of the last century. Its list of food-plants is 
extensive, including apple, pear, quince, plum, mulberry, 
osage-orange, box-elder, honey locust, elm, hack-berry and many 
others ; in our cities it has become notorious as an enemy of 
the soft maple, hence its common name. When growing on 
different plants the scales vary greatly in size and form and the 
species has therefore received many scientific names. When 
living on the grape the mature female scale is about one fifth 
inch in length, brownish in color and resembles half a coffee- 
berry in form. Each female lays about 3000 pale yellowish, 
oval eggs in a large white cottony mass of waxen threads 
secreted by glands on the under side of the body (Figs. 365 and 
366). As this flocculent mass increases in size the posterior 
end of the scale is raised from the bark at an angle of about 
45 degrees. When the full number of eggs has been laid these 
cottony masses are much larger than the scales themselves and 
render infested branches highly conspicuous. The eggs are laid 



428 



FRUIT INSECTS 



in late May or early June and hatching continues through June 
and July. The female dies soon after the last of the eggs are 
laid. The minute, young lice crawl to the under side of the 

leaves, where they develop into flattened, 
oval, scale-like objects, yellowish or green- 
ish in color. From the smaller and nar- 
rower individuals winged males are pro- 
duced in the early fall. After mating the 
males perish and the females migrate to 




Fig. 365. — The cot- 
tony maple scale. 




Fig. 366. — The cottony maple scale, enlarged. 



the smaller branches, where they settle most often on the un- 
der side. They are then thin and flattened, but the next spring 
continue their growth, become strongly convex and begin egg- 
laying in May or June. 



GRAPE INSECTS 429 

Means of control. 

The scales and their egg-masses can often be dislodged by 
a stiff stream of water. Many of the young lice may be killed 
in summer by thorough spraying with tobacco extract and 
many of the over-wintering forms may be destroyed by appli- 
cations of 15 per cent kerosene emulsion. The cottony maple 
scale is usually periodic in its occurrence, being often nearly 
exterminated locally by its numerous insect parasites. 

References 

Reaumur, Mem. Hist. Insectes, IV, pp. 62-69. 1738. 

Putnam, Proc. Davenport Acad. II, pp. 293-346. 1879. 

Mayet, Insectes de la Vigne, pp. 30-36. 1890. 

U. S. Bur. Ent. Bull. 22, pp. 7-16. 1900. 

N. J. Agr. Exp. Sta. Rept. for 1905, pp. 591-607. 1906. 

Col. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 116. 1908. 

111. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 112. 1907. 

Sanders, Jour. Ec. Ent. II, pp. 433-435. 1909. 



The Grape Scale 

Aspidiotus uvce Comstock 

This somewhat elliptical, flat, pale yellowish-brown scale 
measures about T V of an inch in diameter and has the exuvial 
spot, which is pale yellow with a whitish nipple, at one side of 
the center. It is widely distributed in the United States and 
occurs in Europe, Brazil and the West Indies, but is rarely 
injurious, attacking practically only the grape-vine, especially 
the crevices of bark from the ground to the second year's growth. 
Vines sometimes become incrusted and may die. The winter 
is passed in a nearly full-grown condition. The female com- 
pletes her growth in the spring, and during May and June gives 
birth to from 35 to 50 living young. There is but a single 
brood annually, and the insect spreads very slowly. Lady- 



430 



FRUIT INSECTS 



bird beetles, parasites and mites are active enemies of this 
grape scale. 

This pest can be controlled by thorough spraying with lime- 
sulfur mixture while the vines are dormant. In case this 
treatment has been neglected until the vines have started in 
the spring, the increase of the scale may be checked by several 
applications of either whale-oil soap, 1 pound in 4 gallons of 
water, or with a 10-12 per cent kerosene emulsion. 

Reference 
U. S. Bur. Ent. Bull. 97, Pt. VII. 1912. 



The Grape-berry Moth 

Polychrosis viteana Clemens 

The cause of most wormy grapes throughout the United 
States and Canada is the caterpillar of a small purplish-brown 

moth which is always 
present in most vine- 
yards and often in de- 
structive numbers. It 
has been recorded in 
injurious numbers in 
Canada, Ohio, Illinois, 
Missouri, Pennsylvania, 
New York, Maryland, 
Virginia and Texas. In 
1902 a serious outbreak 
occurred in the Chau- 
tauqua grape belt of 
western New York, 
where in some vine- 
yards losses of from 25 
to 50 per cent of the crop are recorded and in one case 90 
per cent of the fruit was ruined. 




Fig. 367. 



Pupae of the grape-berry moth. 
Enlarged. 



GRAPE INSECTS 



431 




The grape-berry moth always passes the winter in the pupa 

(Fig. 367) state in the cocoon. In the autumn most of the 

cocoons are found 

on the damp and 

decayed leaves close 

to the ground under 

the vines rather 

than on the dried 

leaves, which are 

often blown into 

piles, and some of 

the cocoons may 

break away from 

the leaves to which 

they are attached. 

The moths emerge 

about June 1 in 

New York and 

deposit their thin, 

rounded, scale-like semitransparent eggs probably on the stems 

of the blossom clusters. Some of the caterpillars hatch and 

begin feeding before 
the grape blossoms 
open. They make 
a slight web among 
the blossom buds 
into which they eat, 
oftentimes destroy- 
ing a dozen or more 
embryo grape-ber- 
ries. The destruc- 
tive work of this 

spring brood of caterpillars continues in June through the 

blossoming period and among the recently-set berries. One 



Fig. 368. 



Grape-berry moth pupa in its cocoon on 
flap of leaf. Enlarged. 




Fig. 369. — The grape-berry moth (x 5). 



432 



FRUIT INSECTS 




caterpillar may destroy more 
developing fruits in June 
than half a dozen cater- 
pillars working in the larger 
berries later in the season. 
Yet this spring brood and 
its work rarely attracts at- 
tention because the slightly 
webbed portions of the clus- 
ters of blossoms or young 
fruits do not make infested 

Fig. 370. — Egg of grape-berry moth on clusters especially COnspicU- 
grape, greatly enlarged. OUS (FigS. 371 and 372) and 

the spring brood is comparatively small. 

By July 1 in New York many of the caterpillars have at- 
tained full size ; they are then about three eighths of an inch 



\ %, ^ 






He ^•.■'srVJSBHHSfe*' 




>% AIL J\4. 


j^ I ^p^% ^ > 




ik 





Fig. 371. — Work of spring brood of grape-berry moth caterpillars among 

blossoms and young fruits in June. 



long and vary in color from dark greenish to purplish with a light 
brown head and blackish thoracic shield (Fig. 373). They go 
on to the leaves, where they make their peculiar cocoons, as shown 



GRAPE INSECTS 



433 



in Figure 374. A little flap is cut from the leaf and gradually 
pulled over and down and fastened to the leaf by silken threads. 
The inside is then 
lined with white 
silk, thus forming a 
snug cocoon. At 
the edge of a leaf, 
it is necessary to 
cut the flap only at 
the ends; but when 
the cocoon is made 
away from the edge, 
the flap must be cut 
along one side also, 
and frequently the 
caterpillar cuts along 
where the edge of 
the flap is to meet 
the edge of the leaf 
and pulls up the leaf 
a little to meet the 
flap. Two to four 
days after building 
the cocoon the cat- 
erpillar transforms 
into a light greenish- 
brown pupa (Fig. 
368). Many of the 
spring brood of cat- 
erpillars pupate dur- 
ing the first week in 

July and in 12 to 14 days the purplish brown moths having 
an expanse of a little less than half an inch begin to emerge 

(Fig. 369). By means of the spines on its back the pupa is 

2f 




Fig. 372. — Grape-berry moth caterpillars 
working among young fruits. 



434 



FRUIT INSECTS 




enabled to work its 
way nearly out of 
one end of its co- 
coon and the moth 
then emerges, leav- 
ing the empty pupa 
skin projecting from 
the cocoon. These 
July moths lay their 
eggs on the skin of 
the green berries or 
on the stems (Fig. 
370). 

Fig. 373. — Grape-berry moth caterpillars (x3|). During July and 

August all of the four stages of the grape-berry moth can be 
found in the vineyards at the same time, for the different broods 
overlap. The most 
conspicuous and de- 
structive work is done 
by the second and 
most numerous 
brood of caterpillars 
working in the grow- 
ing green grapes in 
July and August. 
This brood of cater- 
pillars lives inside 
the berries on the 
pulp and seeds, 
often going into a 
second or third berry, 
fastening them to- 
gether with a few FlG ' 374 ' — Gra P e leaf showing cocoons in the 
^ making and finished by grape-berry moth cater- 

silken threads (Fig. pillars. 




GRAPE INSECTS 435 

375). Infested berries show characteristic purplish spots 
and often crack open, thus affording ideal places for the en- 
trance of the spores of rot fungi (Figs. 376 and 377). Every 
infested berry helps to spoil the symmetry of the clusters and 
necessitates the labor of removing such berries before marketing 
the crop except where it can be sold for making the poorer grades 
of wine. 

When the summer brood of caterpillars become full-grown 
in August they all go on to the leaves and cut out their character- 
istic cocoons. Some of the pupae from cocoons made before 




Fig. 375. — The grape-berry moth caterpillar and its work in the pulp and 

seeds enlarged. 

the middle of August transform in 12 to 14 days into moths 
which lay eggs for a third or fall brood of caterpillars, but 'all 
of the second brood caterpillars pupating after that date do 
not emerge till the following spring. Most of the fall brood 
caterpillars are full-grown before October 1, but some may 
be found working in very ripe fruit two weeks later. A few 
caterpillars transform in autumn to pupae inside the berries 
they infest, but most of them make their characteristic cocoons 
on the leaves like the earlier broods. As a rule, the insect 
always passes the winter in the pupa state in its cocoon on the 
fallen leaves. 



436 



FRUIT INSECTS 



Means of control. 

The grape-berry moth can be fought most efficiently by 

thorough spraying with arsenate of lead, 6 pounds in 100 gallons 

of water or Bordeaux mix- 
ture. The first application 
should be made shortly after 
the fruit sets; the second 
about ten days later and the 
third about the middle of 
July in New York, just as 
the eggs of the second brood 
are hatching. In cases of 
severe infestation it is some- 
times necessary to make an- 
other application about ten 
days later. The caterpillars 
of the first brood do not en- 
ter the grape-berries, but feed 
on the outside, thus offering 
a better opportunity for poi- 
soning them than is the case 
with the second brood. Fur- 
thermore, they are compara- 
tively few in numbers and 
each one destroyed early in 
the season means many less 
caterpillars in the succeeding 
broods; hence the import- 
ance of thorough spraying 
for this brood. Thorough 
and careful work with a 

sprayer giving high pressure are necessary to throw the spray 

into the grape clusters, where the newly hatched caterpillars 

will get the poison in their first meal. 




Fig. 376. — Cluster of grapes injured by 
the grape-berry moth-caterpillars. 



GRAPE INSECTS 



437 




Fig. 377. 
berry moth, 
berries. 



- Cluster of green Concord grapes badly infested by the grape- 
Note the discoloration and the cracking open of the infested 



References 



Cornell Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 223. 1904. 
Ohio Agr. Exp. Sta. Circ. 63. 1906. 



The Grape-blossom Midge 

Contarinia johnsoni Slingerland 

This grape pest was first discovered in the Chautauqua grape 
region of western New York in 1904, and as far as known is 
still confined to that locality. A closely related species causes 



438 



FRUIT INSECTS 




Fig. 378. — Enlarged blossom buds infested with 
midge larvae, normal blossom buds at the right. 



a similar injury to 
grapes in Europe. 
Its presence in a 
vineyard is first in- 
dicated by abnor- 
mally enlarged, yel- 
lowish or dark 
reddish blossom 
buds (Fig. 378) 
which fail to open 
and drop off about 
the normal time for 
blossoming. Open- 
ing one of these 
enlarged buds, it 
will be found to 
contain a number of small whitish or yellowish maggots from 
re to T V inch in length (Fig. 379). From 10 to 60 per cent of 
the buds are some- 
times destroyed, 
giving the clusters 
a very thin and 
ragged appearance, 
and thus decreas- 
ing considerably the 
market value of the 
crop. 

The parent insect 
is a delicate two- 
winged midge with 
a yellowish body 
and straw colored 
legs (Fig. 380). The 
female is about yV 




Fig. 379. 



- Grape blossom buds opened to show 
larvse inside, enlarged. 



GRAPE INSECTS 



439 



inch in length and the male a little smaller. The flies emerge 
from the ground in the latter part of May just as some of 
the blossom buds of such early varieties as Moore, Early 
and Worden begin to show a small opening at the tip caused 
by a spreading of the petals. The female deposits her minute, 
grayish, elongate, slightly curved eggs in the interior of 
the bud by means 
of an extensile fleshy 
ovipositor inserted 
through this open- 
ing in the apex of 
the bud. From a 
few to seventy mag- 
gots may be found 
in a single bud, but 
twenty-five is about 
the average in a 
year of heavy infes- 
tation. The infested 
buds contain a 
watery fluid in 
which the maggots 
live. Such buds 
become greatly 
swollen, often three 
times as large as 
normal, and turn yellowish, becoming dark reddish, particularly 
toward the tip. When full-grown the maggot is about iV mcn 
in length and of a yellowish or orange color. They usually 
escape by the opening at the apex, fall to the ground, where at 
a depth of about 6 inches they pass the winter as larvae, curled 
up in small, ovoid, silken lined, earthen cocoons about ^s inch 
in length. Pupation takes place the last of April and the 
adults emerge about a month later. 




Fig. 380. — The grape-blossom midge, female ( X 22). 



440 FRUIT INSECTS 

Control. 

The grape-blossom bud midge has not been found an easy- 
insect to control. The flies feed very little, if at all ; the eggs are 
deposited in the interior of the bud, where maggots complete 
their growth out of the reach of poisons. It has been suggested 
that thorough cultivation of the soil might destroy a large 
part of the larvae in their hibernating quarters, but the fact that 
many well-cultivated vineyards are badly infested would in- 
dicate that little protection can be expected from this method. 

Recent experiments conducted in New York show that " Black 
Leaf " tobacco extract, 1 gallon in 50 gallons of water, is of con- 
siderable value in deterring the flies from depositing eggs, 
and thus lessens the number of injured buds. The first ap- 
plication should be made just as the buds of the early vari- 
eties begin to show an opening at the apex between the tips 
of the petals, and the second should follow in about one week. 

Reffrences 

Cornell Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 224, pp. 71-73. 1904. 

Felt, 24th Rept. State Ent. N. Y., pp. 15-19. 1909. 

N. Y. (Geneva) Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 331, pp. 514-530. 1910. 



The Grape Ctjrculio 

Craponius incequalis Say 

While widely distributed throughout the United States east 
of the Rocky Mountains the grape curculio has been most 
destructive in Missouri, Illinois, Ohio, Kentucky, West Vir- 
ginia and North Carolina. In West Virginia losses from this 
cause of from 50 to 75 per cent of the crop are not uncommon. 
It is a native American insect which fed originally on the various 
species of wild grapes. 

The small, inconspicuous, brownish snout-beetles, one 
tenth of an inch or less in length, emerge from hibernation and 



GRAPE INSECTS 441 

appear in the vineyards about the time grapes are in blossom 
and feed on the upper surface of the leaves for nearly a month 
before beginning to lay their eggs. In feeding the beetles eat 
only the upper epidermis of the leaf and leave characteristic 
feeding marks about -2V of an inch wide and an eighth of an 
inch long, which soon turn whitish and give a sure indication 
of the curculio's presence in a vineyard. 

In West Virginia egg-laying begins about the middle of June, 
when the grapes are about one half grown, and continues till 
they are ripe. The female first inserts her snout through the 
skin of the grape and eats out a cavity under the skin ; then 
turning around she places a small, white, elliptical egg on the 
farther side of the cavity by means of her extensile ovipositor ; 
and then seals the opening of the cavity with a drop of excre- 
ment. The egg cavity shows on the surface of the grape as 
a circular brownish spot with the puncture a little to one side 
of the center. The female may continue to lay eggs for two 
or three months, laying in all from 60 to nearly 400 eggs. 

The eggs hatch in five to seven days, depending on the tem- 
perature, and the young grub tunnels through the fruit and 
usually devours one or more of the seeds. The berry often 
turns purplish around the egg puncture and usually drops 
from the vine before the grub reaches maturity, thus leaving 
the clusters thin and scraggled and greatly reducing the value 
of the crop. The grub becomes full-grown in about twelve 
days and then leaves the grapes through a small hole in the 
skin. It is white with a brownish head, legless, and at the time 
of leaving the grape is about f of an inch in length. Pupation 
takes place in a small dirt-covered cocoon on or just below the 
surface of the ground or under the protection of a stone or 
piece of bark lying on the ground. The beetles emerge in 
about 19 days. 

In West Virginia beetles of the new brood begin to appear in 
the latter part of July and continue to emerge until the close of 



442 FRUIT INSECTS 

the season. They are at first nearly black in ground color, 
but soon fade to brownish. These beetles feed on the leaves 
till the approach of cold weather, when they go into hibernation 
under rubbish, especially in near-by woodlots. Some of the 
earliest beetles to emerge, however, mate and lay a few eggs 
the same season, but as a large proportion of these eggs are 
infertile, only a small second brood is produced in the latitude 
of West Virginia. 

Experiments in West Virginia have shown that the grape 
curculio can be successfully controlled by spraying the vines 
thoroughly with an arsenical poison at the first appearance of 
the beetles. In these experiments Paris green, one half pound 
in 100 gallons of water, was used, but it is probable that equally 
good results could be obtained by using arsenate of lead. Addi- 
tional applications may sometimes be found necessary in cases 
where the beetles are excessively abundant. 

Reference 
W. Va. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 100. 1906. 

The grape-seed chalets (Evoxysoma vitis Saunders). 

The seeds of the wild grape in the eastern United States and 
Canada are commonly infested by a milk-white larva about 
| of an inch in length which eats out the kernel. The insect 
passes the winter as a larva within the seed. Pupation takes 
place in June, and in early July the adult gnaws its way out of 
the seed, leaving a small, round hole. The adult is a small 
four- winged fly about f inch in length and black in color. 
The female is provided with a sharp needle-like ovipositor which 
she inserts through the skin and pulp of the grape and deposits 
her minute whitish egg in the kernel of the seed. Most of the 
egg-laying takes place in July. Cultivated varieties are rarely 
infested, but we have occasionally seen Delawares badly injured 
by the punctures made by the female in ovipositing. The 



GBAPE INSECTS 



443 



injured berries color prematurely and sometimes shrivel and 
drop. Infestation by the grape-seed chalcis may be prevented 
by destroying all wild grape-vines in the vicinity of the vine- 
yard, and by not allowing any of the infested fruit to remain 
in the vineyard after picking time. 

Reference 
Cornell Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 265, p. 380. 1909. 



The Grape Root-worm 

Fidia viticida Walsh 

This small grayish-brown beetle is by all odds the most 
destructive insect enemy of the grape occurring east of the Rocky 
Mountains. It is a 
native American insect 
which doubtless fed 
originally on the various 
species of wild grapes. 
Its known range extends 
from Nebraska to Mass- 
achusetts and south- 
ward to Texas, Missis- 
sippi and North 
Carolina. Since 1866 
it has ranked as a pest 
in Kentucky, Missouri, 
Arkansas and Illinois, 
but the outbreak in the 
Lake Erie grape belt 
beginning in 1893 has 

been by far the most FlG 3 81. - Characteristic work of the 

extensive, persistent and root-worm beetle. 




grape 



444 



FRUIT INSECTS 




Fig. 382. — Grape root-worm beetles feeding on a leaf. 

destructive in the history of this pest. In this region the in- 
sect first attracted attention in 1893 near Cleveland, Ohio; 

in 1898 it became destructive in Erie 
County, Pennsylvania ; in 1900 it appeared 
in injurious numbers in the western part 
of the Chautauqua grape belt of western 
New York and is now widely distributed 
throughout that region. 

The grape root-worm is destructive in 
two stages of its development ; the .bee- 
tles feed on the leaves in July, eating out 
characteristic chain-like holes (Figs. 381 
and 382) and in severe cases reducing the foliage to shreds ; the 
grubs attack the roots, eat off the root-fibers and cut out 




Fig. 383. — Beetle of the 
grape root-worm (x2|). 



GRAPE INSECTS 



445 



furrows in the bark of the larger roots and main stem under- 
ground. The injury to the roots is by far the more important. 
The grubs eat off 
all the finer roots 
and often strip the 
bark from the larger 
roots, thus depriv- 
ing the plant of its 
supply of food and 
moisture. Badly 
infested vines soon 
take on a stunted 
sickly appearance, 
the leaves turn yellowish, and many fall prematurely, leaving the 
fruit to wither and drop. In severe cases the vines may be 
killed outright. Under certain conditions the insect is capable 
of ruining a vineyard in one or two seasons. 




Fig. 384. 



Cluster of grape root-worm eggs, en- 
larged. 





Fig. 385. — Grape root-worm eggs in position on grape canes. 

The grape root-worm beetle (Fig. 383) is about J inch in 
length, grayish-brown in color, with brown legs and yellowish- 



446 



FRUIT INSECTS 




Fig. 386. — Grape root-worm, mature grubs (x 5). 



brown antennae. The beetles emerge from the ground the latter 
part of June and in July and at once begin feeding on the upper 

surface of the grape leaves, producing chain- 
like markings, as shown in Figure 382. 
After feeding for about two weeks, the 
female deposits her first batch of eggs be- 
neath the loose bark on the old canes and 
trunk of the vine (Figs. 384 and 385). 
Other batches are laid at intervals of about 
four days, each female ovipositing on an 
average four or five times. The total num- 
ber of eggs laid by each female averages 
over 100. The egg is about -jj inch in length and about one third 
as wide as long, cylindrical in form, with rounded ends, and is 
yellowish-white in color. The eggs are laid in loose, flattened 




Fig. 387. — Pupa of 
the grape root- worm. 



GRAPE INSECTS 



447 



clusters, averaging 25 to 40 eggs each The beetles normally 
begin to lay eggs the second week in July, and oviposition is at its 
height the latter part of the month, but eggs are deposited by 
a few belated individuals up to the first of September. The 
eggs hatch in from eight days to two weeks, depending on the 
temperature; in the latter part of the season incubation may 
last for over three weeks. Eggs laid after the first of September 
do not, as a rule, hatch. 

On hatching the young grub drops to the ground and, taking 
advantage of any crack or crevice in the soil, soon burrows down 
to the roots of the 
vine. Here it feeds 
for the rest of the 
season on the finer 
roots, and when 
these are consumed 
attacks the larger 
roots and the un- 
derground part of 
the stem, eating out 
burrows and pits in 
the bark, as shown 
in Figure 389. 

A few of the 
grubs complete their growth (Fig. 386) the same season, 
but the majority are only about three fourths grown at the 
time for going into hibernation in October and November. 
Towards the last of May and in June the grubs ascend to within 
two or three inches of the surface and there construct earthen 
cells within which about three weeks later they transform to 
whitish or pinkish-white pupae (Figs. 387 and 388). On an 
average, 17 days are spent in this stage. After transformation 
the beetles remain in the pupal cell for several days, in order to 
become hardened, and then burrow to the surface, emerging to- 




Fig. 388. — Grape root-worm pupa in its earthen cell. 



448 



FRUIT INSECTS 




FlG ' roots wer?eLfn a nff1nHr S ^ by the grubs ' A11 of the fine Ceding 
roots were eaten off and the mam roots scarred or pitted by the grubs. 



GBAPE INSECTS 449 

wards the last of June and in July. Normally the life-cycle 
is completed in one year, but under adverse conditions, such as 
compact clay soil or an insufficient supply of food, the larval 
development may be so retarded that they require a second 
season in which to reach maturity. In the latter case they go 
into hibernation early, in August of the second year, and prob- 
ably give rise to the earliest beetles the following spring. 

Treatment. 

As the grape root-worm beetles feed extensively on the upper 
surface of the leaves before beginning to lay their eggs, an 
excellent opportunity is presented to destroy them with an 
arsenical spray. Arsenate of lead, 6 pounds in 100 gallons of 
water, is the poison now used most extensively for this purpose, 
replacing Paris green and arsenite of lime because of its greater 
adhesiveness and owing to the fact that there is less danger 
of foliage injury. The first application should be made very 
soon after the first beetles appear, for it has been shown that 
they eat the poison much more readily if they have never had 
an opportunity to feed on unsprayed foliage. A second appli- 
cation should be made about 10 days after the first. Recent 
work in western New York has shown that the efficiency of 
the poison can be greatly increased by adding 2 gallons of 
molasses to each 100 gallons of the spray liquid. Unfortunately 
the addition of molasses decreases the adhesiveness of the poison, 
and the application should not be made just before a rain, 
if it can be avoided. For satisfactory results in poisoning the 
grape root-worm, it is important that the foliage be evenly 
covered with a fine mist-like spray. Pumps should be used that 
give a high and uniform pressure, and the nozzles should be so 
arranged that not only the sides of the vines are hit, but the 
uppermost nozzle should be carried out over the top of the 
trellis and directed downward so as to reach the new growth, 
where much of the feeding is done. 

As stated above, the majority of the overwintering grubs 
2g 



450 FRUIT INSECTS 

transform to pupae in earthen cells near the surface of the ground 
in the first half of June. By stirring the soil under the vines 
by means of a horse hoe at that time, a large part of the cells 
will be broken open and the tender pupae die from exposure 
or fall a prey to ants or other enemies. The soil close to the 
base of the vine where it cannot be reached with the horse hoe 
should be stirred thoroughly with a hand hoe, for it is at this 
point that the greatest number of pupae are found. The best 
results from cultivation are to be expected in years of abundant 
rain ; in dry seasons many of the pupal cells are too deep to be 
reached by ordinary hoeing. By throwing up a ridge of soil 
under the row at the last cultivation in the summer, the grubs 
will be encouraged to form their pupal cells higher above the 
roots where it is easier to reach them with the hoe. Cultivation 
alone cannot be depended upon for the control of the grape 
root-worm, but should be employed in connection with the sys- 
tem of spraying suggested above. 

In infested regions it is highly important to keep the vines 
in as thrifty a condition as possible by proper pruning, fertiliza- 
tion, cultivation and the use of suitable cover-crops ; it is much 
easier to control the root-worm in a well-cared-for vineyard 
than in one that has been neglected and is in a run-down con- 
dition. 

References 

Ohio Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 62. 1895. 

Cornell Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 184. 1900. 

Cornell Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 208. 1902. 

Felt, N. Y. State Museum, Bull. 59. 1902. y 

Felt, N. Y. State Museum, Bull. 72. 1903. 

Cornell Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 224, pp. 65-71. 1904. 

U. S. Dept. Agr. Farmers' Bull. 284, pp. 6-12. 1907. 

U. S. Bur. Ent. Bull. 89. 1910. 

N. Y. (Geneva) Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 331, pp. 549-568. 1910. 

Hartzell, Jour. Ec. Ent. IV, pp. 419-422. 1911. 



GRAPE INSECTS 451 

The Califoenia Grape Root-worm 

Adoxus obscurus Linnaeus 

In California the grape is attacked by a beetle which, in 
habits, life history and the nature of the injury inflicted, is very 
similar to the grape root-worm of the Eastern states. This 
beetle has a wide distribution in Europe, Siberia, northern 
Africa and the northern part of North America. It has long 
been recognized as a pest of the grape in France, Germany, 
Italy and Algeria, but in this country it has attracted attention 
only in California, although it is known to occur from New 
Hampshire to the Pacific through the Northern states and 
Canada. There are two forms of the beetle, a black and a 
brown race ; in Europe only the brown form is known to attack 
the grape, but in California both forms are found on the vine 
and interbreed indiscriminately. The original wild food-plants 
both in this country and Europe are the various species of 
Epilobium or fire-weed. 

The majority of the beetles emerge from the ground in the 
first half of May, and practically all disappear by the last of 
June. The beetles are about T 3 g- of an inch in length. There 
are two color varieties : one is almost entirely black ; in the other 
the head and thorax are black, the wing-covers brown. Both 
varieties are clothed with a short gray pubescence. The beetles 
feed on the upper surface of the leaves, eating out chain-like holes 
or grooves ; they also attack the tender shoots, and the petioles 
of the leaves, the fruit stems and even the small berries. 

After feeding about two weeks the female begins egg-laying. 
The yellowish-white elongate eggs are deposited in clusters 
of ten to thirty in crevices beneath the strips of loose bark on 
the old wood. They hatch in 8 to 12 days, and the young 
grubs soon reach the ground and burrow down to the roots. 
They first feed on the smaller roots, but later attack the larger 
roots, eating longitudinal furrows in the bark. Some of the 



452 FRUIT INSECTS 

grubs become full-grown the first season; others complete 
their growth the following spring. When ready to transform, 
the grubs ascend to within four to eight inches of the surface, 
and there construct earthen cells in which the transformation 
to the white helpless pupa takes place. In about two weeks 
the pupa changes to the adult, which, after a few days required 
for hardening, burrows to the surface and begins its depreda- 
tions on the leaves. There is only one brood a year. 

Treatment. 

Thorough stirring of the soil to a depth of six inches close 
around the vine at the time the pupae are in their earthen cells will 
break many of the cells and kill a large proportion of the pupae. 
By keeping the ground around the vine mulched in the spring, 
the moisture will be conserved, and the grubs will be more likely 
to come nearer to the surface for pupation. This treatment 
cannot be expected to fully control the root-worm, but should 
be used in connection with thorough spraying to kill beetles. 

The beetles feed on the upper surface of the leaves for about 
two weeks before beginning to lay their eggs and may be killed 
at that time by a thorough application of arsenate of lead, 10 
pounds to 100 gallons of water. When only a few vines are 
attacked, it is feasible to capture the beetles by jarring the vines 
over a canvas-covered frame or beetle-catcher. 

References 

Mayet, Les Insectes de la Vigne, pp. 321-332. 1890. 
Cal. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 195. 1908. 

The Grape-vine Root-borer 

Memythrus polistiformis Harris 

The roots of both the wild and cultivated varieties of grapes 

are subject to the attacks of a large whitish borer, the larva 

of a beautiful wasp-like, clear-wing moth. The species ranges 

from Vermont to Minnesota and southward to South Carolina 



GRAPE INSECTS 453 

and Missouri. It has been most destructive in Kentucky, West 
Virginia and North Carolina. 

The parent moths emerge in the latter part of July and usually 
disappear before the middle of August in the latitude of West 
Virginia. The female moth has an expanse of one and one half 
inches ; the male is somewhat smaller. The front wings are 
opaque brown-black ; the hind wings are transparent, narrowly 
bordered and streaked along the principal veins with violet- 
brown. The legs are orange, and the abdomen is crossed by 
two yellow bands. 

The moths are most active in the heat of the day, when they 
may be seen flying rapidly near the ground or resting on the 
vines or other low vegetation. In form, color and movement 
they have a striking resemblance to some of the larger wasps, 
for which they are readily mistaken by the casual observer. 

The female deposits her oval chocolate-brown eggs, about 
2V inch in length, singly or more rarely in pairs on the leaves 
or bark of the vines, or on the leaves or stems of grasses or 
weeds growing under the vines. Each female lays about 400 
eggs ; they are attached rather loosely, and usually fall to the 
ground before hatching. They hatch in about three weeks. 

On hatching, the young larva at once burrows into the soil in 
search of a grape root on which to complete its development. 
After reaching the root, it burrows under the bark for a time, 
but as it increases in size it is able to eat out all the wood and 
inner bark of the smaller roots, leaving only the outer bark intact. 
Most of the larvae are found a foot or more from the base of the 
vine. The infested roots are either greatly weakened or killed 
beyond the point of attack, and if many larvae are present, 
the vine may suffer severely ; only a small amount of bearing 
wood is produced, and the size of the crop is consequently smalL 

The larva continues to feed most of the time during the first 
winter and by the next fall is nearly full-grown. It spends the 
second winter in a silk-lined cavity in its burrow in the grape 



454 FRUIT INSECTS 

root and completes its growth the following spring. The 
larvae become mature in late June and early July of the 
second year after hatching from the egg. They are then 
about one and three fourths inches in length and whitish 
in color, with a brownish head. When about to pupate, the 
larva leaves its burrow in the root, ascends almost to the sur- 
face of the ground and there constructs a silken cocoon in the 
outer layers of which are incorporated particles of earth and 
excrement. The pupal period lasts four or five weeks. When 
about to transform, the pupa works itself out of the cocoon so 
that its anterior end is brought to the surface of the ground 
and the moth is enabled to escape without injury to its wings. 
The moths usually emerge in the morning hours, the sexes 
mate the afternoon of the same day and the female begins to 
lay eggs the following day. They lay most of their eggs in 
about a week and die in ten days or two weeks. 

Living underground in the roots at some distance from the 
base of the vine for the greater part of its existence, the grape- 
root borer may do serious injury to the vines and cause con- 
siderable loss without attracting the attention of the vineyardist. 
The control of this insect is not easy. Digging out the borers, 
as is done with its near relative, the peach-tree borer, is here 
impracticable, because as a rule they are found far out in the 
roots where it would be impossible to reach them without 
moving a large quantity of earth. 

Much may be done, however, to lessen the numbers of moths 
by frequent shallow cultivation of the vineyard from the middle 
of June till the middle of July while the pupae are near the sur- 
face. Not only will cultivation at that time either bury or 
destroy many of the pupae, but it will tend to produce a vigorous 
condition of the vines and render them more resistant to borer 
attack. 

Reference 

W. Va. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 110. 1907. 



GRAPE INSECTS 455 

The Grape Phylloxera 

Phylloxera vastatrix Planchon 

This destructive plant-louse is a native of the eastern United 
States, where it originally infested the leaves and roots of the 
various species of wild grapes. Sometime before 1863 it was 
introduced into the great wine-producing regions of France, 
and there proved a deadly enemy of the European grape (Vitis 
vinifera). By 1884 a third of the vineyards of France had been 
destroyed, and a much larger area had been seriously affected. 
It was introduced into California some time before 1874 and 
is now present in most of the grape-producing regions of the 
state except in the southern part. As most of the grapes 
grown commercially in California are of the vinifera or European 
type, the phylloxera has there been one of the most important 
insect pests with which the vineyardists of the Pacific slope 
have had to contend. The phylloxera has also been introduced 
into New Zealand and South Africa, and also occurs in southern 
Russia and in Algeria. 

The life history of the grape phylloxera is a complicated one. 
In its destructive form it is a small, yellowish, wingless root- 
louse about ^ of an inch in length found clustering on the roots 
of the vine. In feeding, the louse inserts the sharp and slender 
stylets of the beak and sucks out the sap, thus causing an 
irritation which produces an abnormal enlargement of the roots 
known as nodules. These swellings are yellow in color, soft 
and watery, and after a time break down and decay, causing 
the death of the root. The underground forms molt three 
times before becoming mature ; they are all females and re- 
produce without being fertilized. The number of eggs laid 
by a single individual varies considerably with the climate 
and the season, but rarely exceeds a hundred. The eggs are 
oval in form, yellow in color and about \ of an inch in length ; 
they are laid singly or in clusters on the roots of the vine. 



456 FRUIT INSECTS 

There may be six generations of the root-inhabiting form 
annually, and experimental rearing has shown that reproduction 
may continue in this way for several years without appreciable 
loss of vigor or of prolificness. Normally, however, during 
the latter half of the season some of the lice infesting the roots 
become more elongate than the others and have longer legs 
and antennae. These forms do not become mature at the third 
molt and begin to lay eggs, but continue their development; 
at the fourth molt, wing pads become visible on the thorax ; and 
at the fifth and last molt, which takes place after the nymph 
has crawled to the surface, functional wings are acquired. 
After waiting a few hours for the wings to dry and the body to 
harden, they take flight and, if a wind is blowing, may be trans- 
ported a considerable distance. After feeding about a day on 
the under side of one of the tender leaves at the end of the shoots 
they are ready to deposit their yellowish-white eggs of two 
distinct sizes; from the larger eggs are developed the true 
females and from the smaller ones the true males. Both sexes 
are wingless, and the female after fertilization deposits a single 
so-called winter egg on the bark of the older canes. These 
sexual forms are much smaller than the others, and functional 
mouth parts are lacking. The insect does not pass the winter 
exclusively in the egg state, but many of the younger individuals 
of the root-inhabiting form, as well as many of the later migrants 
from the leaves, hibernate in small groups on the larger roots. 

The winter eggs hatch in the spring soon after the first grape 
leaves have become well expanded, and the young lice normally 
crawl up the canes to the leaves, where they settle on the upper 
surface and begin sucking out the juices of the leaf. The 
puncture made in feeding stimulates the growth of the leaf 
cells so that a hollow gall is formed, projecting from the under 
side of the leaf and opening by a narrow slit on the upper 
surface (Fig. 390). The opening is guarded by a dense growth 
of down. Within this cavity the insect continues its develop- 



GRAPE INSECTS 



457 



ment and becomes mature after the third molt, which occurs 
in about fifteen days. The forms producing the galls are all 
wingless females, and each individual of the earlier generation 
may lay from 500 to 600 eggs during the three weeks of her life 
as an adult. Towards the end of the season the later broods 
are not so prolific, 100-200 eggs being the maximum. The eggs 
hatch in about eight days, and the young escape from the gall 




Fig. 390. — Phylloxera galls on wild grape leaf. 



by the opening on the upper surface of the leaf and migrate 
to the tender leaves at the end of the branches, where new galls 
are formed. From five to seven generations of the gall- 
inhabiting form occurs annually. Nearly all the young of the 
earlier generations migrate to the leaves, but after the third 
generation an increasing number migrate to the roots, where 
they join their underground sisters in their insidious attack 
on the vine. 



458 FRUIT INSECTS 

The complete life history, as outlined above, occurs only 
when the phylloxera is living on the species of grapes more 
closely related to its native food-plant. In Europe and in 
California the leaf galls are rarely seen. Under these circum- 
stances it is supposed that the lice hatching from the so-called 
winter eggs may migrate at once to the roots. That such is 
the case, however, does not seem to have been proved by direct 
observation. 

Means of control. 

The grape phylloxera has been found a most stubborn pest 
to fight, and immense sums of money have been spent in ex- 
perimental work in its control. The underground forms can 
be killed by injections of carbon bisulfide into the ground 
around the roots, provided the soil is neither too loose, so that 
the gas escapes too quickly, or so impervious that it does not 
reach the insects on the roots. The application of carbon 
bisulfide, however, is too expensive for use on a large scale 
and it is now rarely employed in commercial vineyards. 

In irrigated regions it is sometimes feasible to destroy the 
phylloxera by inundating the vineyard for two to three months 
in the fall or for a longer time in the winter. The phylloxera 
are more easily killed by water in the summer, but unfortunately 
there is a great danger of injuring the vines by flooding at that 
time. The ground should be covered by 1 to 2 feet of water, 
and the submersion must be continuous for the whole period. 
Obviously this method of control is only of limited application. 

The most practicable method of avoiding phylloxera injury, 
and the one most widely practiced in Europe and in California, 
is the use of resistant stocks. The native wild grapes of the 
eastern United States, while the original food-plant of the phyl- 
loxera, and usually badly infested, suffer little, if at all, from its 
attacks. The most resistant of these wild species which can 
be used for stocks on which to graft the susceptible varieties 
are Vitis riparia and Vitis rupestris. In the selection of resistant 



GRAPE INSECTS 459 

stocks experience has shown that many factors have to be con- 
sidered if commercial success is to be attained. There are many 
varieties of both Vitis riparia and rupestris, many of which are 
worthless for stocks. A satisfactory stock must be adapted, 
to the soil and climate of the region and be of sufficient size 
and vigor to give a strong, healthy growth to the vine and thus 
render it able to set and mature a heavy crop of high quality. 
The selection of resistant stocks is, therefore, a more or less 
local or regional problem, requiring close observation and care- 
ful experimentation by experienced growers who are thoroughly 
familiar with local conditions and with all the complicated 
problems of the grape industry. 

References 

Riley, 6th Rept. Ins. Mo., pp. 30-87. 1874. 
Mayet, Les Insectes de la Vigne, pp. 47-147. 1890. 

A good resume of the extensive European work on the phylloxera. 
Cal. Agr. Exp. Sta. Appendix to Viticultural Rept., 1896. 1897. 

Resistant Vines. 
Cal. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 131. 1901. 
Cal. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 192, pp. 99-111. 1907. 
Cal. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 197, pp. 118-147. 1908. 

Other Grape Insects 

Climbing cutworms : apple, p. 138. 
Twig-pruner : apple, p. 200. 
Flea-beetles : apple, p. 203. 
Ring-legged tree-bug : apple, p. 208. 
Green June-beetle : peach, p. 296. 



CHAPTER XIV 

CRANBERRY INSECTS 

As cranberries are usually grown in bogs which are regularly 
inundated during the winter and which can be reflowed at will, 
many cranberry pests can be controlled by a proper manipu- 
lation of the water. In some cases, however, spraying must be 
resorted to. As it is difficult to drive on the bogs with a sprayer, 
some growers have installed permanent pipes running through 
the beds and connected with a central power pump. The pipes 
are provided with outlets at regular intervals to which a rubber 
hose can be attached. After such a spraying plant has been 
installed it is a simple matter to spray a bog thoroughly. 

The Black-headed Cranberry Worm 

Eudemis vacciniana Packard 

The black-headed cranberry worm, or fire-worm, as it is more 
often called, is one of the most troublesome pests with which 
the grower has to deal. As a rule, the higher, drier bogs are 
less subject to injury from this source than are those regularly 
submerged during the winter. Submergence protects the eggs 
from winter-killing and also probably reduces the abundance 
of parasitic enemies. Bogs in which there is a heavy growth 
of vines are also more liable to heavy infestation. 

The insect passes the winter in the egg-stage. The flat, 

circular, disk-like, bright yellow eggs are readily found on the 

460 



CRANBERRY INSECTS 461 

under surface of the leaves. They are about half the size of an 
ordinary pin head, and nearly a dozen are sometimes laid on 
a single leaf. The eggs hatch about the time the vines begin 
growth in the spring. The newly hatched caterpillar is pale 
green with a shining black head. After feeding a day or so on 
the under side of the old leaf it crawls to the tip of an upright, 
webs together the expanding leaves and feeds within the shelter 
thus formed. The light green color of the under side of the 
leaves thus exposed in these closed tips contrasts strongly with 
the dark green of the normal foliage and is usually the first 
indication of the presence of the pest. The caterpillar becomes 
full-grown in about three weeks ; it is then dark green in color 
with a black head and is about half an inch in length. It 
transforms to a yellow-brown pupa, usually on the ground, but 
sometimes within the nest of webbed leaves, and the moths 
emerge in about a week. By this time the leaves of the webbed 
tips have turned brown, and, if abundant, give the vines a 
scorched appearance. The moths have an expanse of about 
| of an inch ; the wings are ash gray in color and the front wings 
are crossed by irregular bands of brownish. The first brood 
of moths fly during June and lay eggs which hatch in late June 
and early July, in Massachusetts. The second brood larvae 
make comparatively larger nests than do those of the first 
brood and often web together several tips. They feed on the 
leaves, tender buds, flowers and young fruits, giving infested 
areas a scorched appearance, hence the name, fire-worm, by 
which this pest is commonly known among cranberry growers 
in certain regions. The caterpillars of the second brood are, 
as a rule, much more abundant than of the first and the damage 
done correspondingly greater. These caterpillars become full- 
grown from the middle to the last of July, pupate on the ground 
and give rise to a crop of moths, which deposit the winter eggs 
on the under side of the leaves in late July and early August. 
There are two full broods each year. 



462 FRUIT INSECTS 






Control. 

Efficient work can be done against either brood of cater- 
pillars by thorough spraying with arsenate of lead, 6 to 7 pounds 
in 50 gallons of water, as soon as the eggs begin to hatch. As 
the eggs often hatch over a period of four or five weeks, it is 
sometimes advisable to repeat the application in a week or 
ten days. Where water is available for reflowing, a large 
proportion of the pupse can be destroyed by letting the water 
rise up among the vines without covering them and holding it 
there for three days. This reflowing should be done when the 
greatest number of pupae are on the ground. 

A rank growth of vines tends to make the control of this 
insect difficult and much loss may be prevented by so managing 
the water and drainage as to keep down the growth of vines 
and encourage the production of fruit. 

References 

N. J. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. K, pp. 10-15. 1890. 
U. S. Dept. Agr. Farmers' Bull. 178, pp. 9-12. 1903. 
Mass. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 115, pp. 6-9. 1907. 
Mass. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 126, pp. 3-5. 1908. 
Wis. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 159, pp. 6-11. 1908. 

The Yellow-headed Cranberry Worm 

Alceris minuta Robinson 

This insect has been discussed as an apple pest on page 59. 
As a cranberry pest it is most troublesome on dry bogs. The 
green-bodied yellow-headed caterpillars web together the leaves 
at the tips of the uprights in practically the same way as the 
black-headed worms. In Massachusetts there are two broods 
annually, and in New Jersey three. 

Unlike the preceding species the yellow-headed cranberry 
worm hibernates in the adult state as a slaty-gray moth having 
an expanse of about* f of an inch. They emerge from their 



CRANBERRY INSECTS 463 

winter hiding places in the spring and lay their minute, disk- 
like yellow eggs on the under side of the leaves. The eggs so 
closely resemble the eggs of the black-headed worm that they 
can be distinguished only with great difficulty. The eggs 
laid by the overwintering moths are fresher and brighter than 
those of the black-head worm which have been exposed to the 
weather for several months. In New Jersey the overwintering 
females lay their eggs in late April and early May. If the bogs 
are flooded at that time, they usually find a few exposed vines 
around the dams and along the edge of the bog. The eggs hatch 
in ten days and the larvae mature in late May or early June. 
Pupation takes place in the nest of webbed leaves and the next 
brood of moths fly in June. The second brood of caterpillars 
are, as a rule, more abundant and destructive than the first ; 
they make larger nests and often web together six or seven 
uprights and runners. They are especially fond of boring into 
the fruits. A third brood of caterpillars feed during August 
and September and give rise to a brood of moths that winter 
over in sheltered places, under rubbish, etc. 

Control. 

The moths may be prevented from laying their eggs on the 
cranberry vines in the spring by holding the winter flowage on 
the bogs till about May 20 in Massachusetts, at which time 
most of the moths will have disappeared. In the case of dry bogs 
or where it is impracticable to hold the water on the bogs late 
in the spring the yellow-headed worm can be readily controlled 
by one or two thorough applications of arsenate of lead, 10 
pounds in 100 gallons of water, spraying just as the eggs are 
hatching. In Massachusetts the spraying for the second brood 
should be made about the first week in July. 

References 

N. J. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. K, pp. 15-21. 1890. 

U. S. Dept. Agr. Farmers' Bull. 178, pp. 12-17. 1903. 

Mass. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 115, pp. 13-14. 1907. 



464 FRUIT INSECTS 

Cranberry Span-worm 

Cleora pampinaria Guenee 

Cranberry vines are usually infested to a slight extent by 
various kinds of span-worms or measuring worms, also known 
as loopers. The most important of these, and one which is 
sometimes abundant enough to cause serious injury locally is 
the present species. The caterpillars appear in the bogs in- 
June and become full-grown in early July. They are over an 
inch in length, slender, smooth and vary in color from mottled 
pale yellowish to brown. When full-grown the caterpillars 
bury themselves a short distance in the sand and transform 
to rough brown pupse. The pale ash gray moths emerge in a 
few days and lay eggs for a second brood of caterpillars, which 
mature in August. The moths have an expanse of one and 
one half inches and have the wings sprinkled with black and 
crossed with diagonal toothed or scalloped blackish lines. 

The first brood of caterpillars are usually found working 
along the edge of the bogs ; those of the second brood are more 
evenly distributed. When abundant they strip the vines of 
their leaves and make the bog look as though swept by fire. 
They may be destroyed by spraying with arsenicals, as suggested 
under black-headed cranberry worms. 

References 

U. S. Farm. Bull. 178, p. 19. 1903. 
U. S. Bur. Ent. Bull. 66, Pt. III. 1907. 

Another span-worm, Cymatophora sulphurea Packard, some- 
times becomes destructive in Massachusetts. The caterpillars 
of the first brood attack the cranberry vines just as they begin 
to put out new foliage. They not only eat the leaves, but also 
destroy the buds. The full-grown caterpillar is less than an 
inch in length and pale green in color, with a narrow cream 



CRANBERRY INSECTS 465 

colored stripe running the entire length of the body just below 
the spiracles, the body striped the entire length both above 
and below with fine longitudinal whitish lines. The cater- 
pillars become mature about the middle of June and transform 
to pupae just below the surface of the sand. The sulfur yellow 
moths begin to appear in a few days and continue on the wing 
until the middle of July. The second brood of caterpillars 
becomes mature in late July and early August. 

The measures for the control of this species are the same as 
those recommended above. 

Reference 
Franklin, Ent. News, XVIII, pp. 17-20. 1907. 

The Cranberry Gall-fly 

Cecidomyia oxycoccana Johnson 

The terminal buds of the cranberry are sometimes deformed 
into a gall-like growth by the presence of several yellowish or 
orange-red maggots about one sixteenth inch in length. In- 
fested buds are killed and when the injury occurs late in the 
season the formation of fruit buds for the following year may 
be prevented. The larva becomes full-grown in about ten 
days, spins a delicate cocoon inside the deformed bud and there 
transforms to a pupa. The adults emerge a few days later ; 
they are delicate, two-winged, mosquito-like flies, having an 
expanse of less than an eighth of an inch. The females have 
the abdomen deep red and the sides of the thorax yellowish ; 
the male is a uniform gray. The female is provided with an 
extensile ovipositor at the tip of the abdomen by means of 
which she is able to place her minute white eggs in the center 
of a developing bud. There are several broods annually. 
The insect also infests loose-strife and certain heaths. 

The cranberry gall-fly has never been a serious pest. It 

2h 



466 FRUIT INSECTS 

cannot be controlled by poisons or by reflowing the bogs. In 
some cases it might be worth while to destroy all plants of loose- 
strife or heaths growing near the cranberries in which the flies 
might breed. 

Reference 

U. S. Dept. Agr. Farmers' Bull. 178, pp. 17-19. 1903. 

The Ceanberry Fruit-worm 

Mineola vaccinii Riley 

The cranberry fruit-worm is usually present in most bogs and 
often causes serious loss, especially in the higher, drier bogs 
which are not submerged during the winter. 

The parent moths have an expanse of about f inch ; the 
front wings are ash-gray, mottled with black and white ; the 
hind wings a uniform smoky gray. The moths fly during July 
and deposit their thin, flat, nearly circular, scale-like, pale yel- 
lowish eggs on the berries, most often at the calyx end. The 
eggs hatch in about five days and after feeding on the outside 
for a day or two the young caterpillar enters the berry through 
a small hole usually near the stem, which it closes with a web 
of silk. The caterpillar eats out the seed cavity and pulp of 
the berry and then migrates to a second and sometimes to a 
third or fourth berry before it becomes mature in late August 
or in September. The injured berries color prematurely, 
wither and drop from the vines. When full-grown the larva, 
which is then about J inch in length and of a pale green color, 
descends to the ground and there just below the surface con- 
structs a silk-lined, sand-covered cocoon, within which it remains 
in the larval state throughout the winter. In dry bogs pupa- 
tion may occur as early as April, but where winter submergence 
is practiced it does not, as a rule, take place till after the water 
is drawn off in May. The moths emerge in July. 



CRANBERRY INSECTS 467 

Control. 

While the caterpillars in their winter cocoons are able to sur- 
vive ordinary winter submergence of the bogs many may be 
killed by flowing the bogs for ten days or two weeks directly 
after picking. The water should then be drawn off to allow 
the vines to ripen. Holding the winter flowage on the bogs 
till the middle of May is of great value in controlling the fruit- 
worm, but as it is likely to reduce the size of the crop it is not 
advisable to practice it except every third or fourth year. On 
dry bogs recourse must be had to spraying, although it has not 
as yet given fully satisfactory results ; 1 pound Paris green 
and 2 pounds resin fish-oil soap in 50 gallons Bordeaux mixture 
have been recommended ; t the resin fish-oil soap is used as a 
sticker. 

Many infested berries are picked with the crop and taken to 
the screen house, where they are screened out before the fruit 
is sent to market. These screenings should be burned promptly 
before the caterpillars have time to emerge, and after the pick- 
ing season is over all cracks and crevices about the screen house 
should be cleaned out to destroy all the caterpillars that have 

spun up in them. 

References 

Mass. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 115, pp. 3-6. 1907. 
Mass. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 126, pp. 1-3. 1908. 
Wis. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 159, pp. 19-20. 1908. 



The Cranberry Katydid 

Scudderta texensis Saussure 

In New Jersey this large, green, broad-winged katydid has 
sometimes been very destructive to the fruit, the seeds of which 
they devour. The adult katydid is about lj inches in length 
and the female is provided with a flat, sickle-shaped ovipositor 
by means of which she inserts her flat, slightly kidney-shaped, 



468 FRUIT INSECTS 

yellowish-brown eggs in the edges of the leaves of certain grasses 
growing in the bogs or on the dikes and dams. Deer grass 
(Panicum dichotomum) and double-seeded millet (P. viscidum) 
are preferred for oviposition. There is only one brood a year, 
the winter being passed in the egg-stage. The younger katy- 
did nymphs do not attack the berries. The berry-feeding habit 
does not develop until, they reach the last nymphal stage. 

The number of katydids can be greatly decreased by keeping 
the bogs free from the grasses in which they lay their eggs. 
On the dams where it is desirable that the grasses be allowed 
to grow in order to protect the banks, the tops containing the 
eggs may be burned off with a gasoline torch in the fall. 

Various species of long-horned or meadow grasshoppers are 
usually abundant in cranberry bogs. They, too, are fond of 
cranberry seeds and aid the katydids in their destructive work. 
Their ravages may be prevented by keeping the bogs free from 
grass; clean bogs are rarely subject to attack. 

Reference 
U. S. Farm. Bull. 178, pp. 26-30. 1903. 

The Cranberry Girdler 

Crambus hortuellus Htibner 

In cranberry bogs along the Atlantic coast spots of consider- 
able size are sometimes seen where the vines have been killed 
and have turned brown as if scorched by fire. The cause of 
the trouble is a sooty grayish caterpillar, about five eighths 
of an inch in length when mature, that lives in a flimsy silken 
tube at or just below the surface of the sand and feeds on the 
bark of the prostrate stems of the vines. 

The parent moth (Fig. 391) has an expanse of about J inch; 
the front wings are pale straw color marked with bands of yel- 
low and silver towards the apex. The wings are folded closely 



CRANBERRY INSECTS 



469 



around the body when at rest. In Massachusetts the moths fly 
from early June till late July and appear a little earlier in New 
Jersey. The female deposits her creamy white, oval eggs, 
0.4 mm. in length, at the base of the food-plant ; before hatch- 
ing they turn to a pinkish-red color. One female was observed 
to lay 700 eggs in confinement. The eggs hatch in seven to 
ten days and the young caterpillars soon begin to construct 
the silken tube in which they live alongside the food-plant just 
at the surface of the ground. The larvae feed on grass and sheep 
sorrel and probably other plants as well as on the cranberry. 
Most of the caterpillars become full-grown by November and 
hibernate in the 
larval condition 
inside a tight 
waterproof silken 
cocoon to which 
considerable sand 
adheres. Some of 

the belated cater- '"^iiPF f'f 

pillars are said to 

£ i r Fig. 391. — Moth of the cranberry girdler. 

leed again lor a 

short time in the spring, but the majority transform the follow- 
ing May or June to a pale honey yellow pupa, about one third 
inch in length, without leaving the winter cocoon. The moths 
emerge very irregularly during June and July. 

Control. 

The cranberry girdler, working as it does at the surface of the 
sand beneath the layer of dead leaves and trash always found 
in an old bog, cannot be reached with an arsenical spray. After 
the larva has completed its winter cocoon it can withstand 
submergence for several months, but as the cocoon is not formed 
till November it is possible to destroy great numbers by re- 
flowing the bogs for a week or ten days immediately after pick- 
ing. Where water is not available for reflowing, badly infested 




470 FRUIT INSECTS 

areas should be burned in the spring before growth starts to 
kill the caterpillars, for the vines are ruined anyway and the 
land may then be replanted at once. The burning can be done 
most conveniently and safely with a gasoline torch when the 
vines are damp so there is no danger of the fire spreading. Bogs 
which are kept well sanded are rarely injured by the girdler. 

References 

Cornell Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 64, pp. 75-76. 1894. 
Scudder, Ins. Life, VII, pp. 1-5. 1894. 
U. S. Dept. Agr. Farmers' Bull. 178, pp. 21-24. 1903. 
Mass. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 115, pp. 14-15. 1907. 

The False Army-worm 
Calocampa nupera Lintner 

Cranberry vines are often seriously injured by the cater- 
pillar of a curiously marked noctuid moth which has an expanse 
of about If inches. On the fore wings there is near the center 
a conspicuous black spot and a V-shaped brownish spot; the 
apex is yellowish-brown and the hind half is purplish towards 
the base ; the rest of the wing is streaked and banded with 
white and various shades of brown. The upper part of the 
head and the front of the thorax are covered with a dense mass of 
yellowish-brown scales contrasting with the reddish-brown tufts 
of the thorax. The moths appear in August and September 
and probably go into hibernation, for we have records of the 
moths flying in April. The eggs are laid in clusters on the under 
side of the leaves or on the twigs. The eggs are nearly round, 
slightly flattened, brownish-gray in color and marked with a 
series of ridges radiating from the tip. The eggs hatch in 
late April or early May and the young, light yellow or greenish 
caterpillars begin feeding on the cranberry buds, often causing 
a serious loss of blossoms. In the younger caterpillars the two 



CRANBERRY INSECTS 



471 




Fig. 392. — The cranberry fulgorid, 
adult female ( X 8) . 



front pairs of prolegs are not 
provided with hooklets and 
do not function in walking; 
these caterpillars therefore 
have a looping gait -like a 
measuring- worm. As the cat- 
erpillars become larger they 
often defoliate the cranberry 
vines ; they also attack vari- 
ous weeds and grasses. We 
have reared them on wild 
cherry leaves. When full- 
grown, the caterpillar is nearly 
two inches in length ; the head 
is a uniform brown without 
spots ; the body varies in color from light green to very dark 
velvety brown and is striped with narrow lines of yellowish. 

They become full-grown in 
July and go into the ground, 
where they transform to a 
brownish pupa; the moths 
emerge in August and Sep- 
tember. 

Means of control. 
The younger caterpillars, 
can be poisoned by thorough 
applications of arsenate of 
lead, 4 to 7 pounds in 100 
gallons of water. The older 
caterpillars are not easily 
killed by arsenicals. Where 
water is available the young caterpillars can be destroyed by 
reflowing the bogs for twenty-four to thirty-six hours soon after 
the middle of May in Massachusetts. If reflowing is deferred 




Fig. 393. — Fifth stage nymph of the 
cranberry fulgorid (X 9). 



472 



FRUIT INSECTS 



till the caterpillars are larger, many of them will be washed 
ashore alive and resume their destructive work when the water is 
drawn off. In some cases where water is not available for more 
than one reflow it is advisable to hold the winter flowage on 
the bogs till about the middle of May, thus preventing either 
the deposition or hatching of the eggs. 









Reference 
Mass. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 115, pp. 9-13. 1907. 






The Cranberry Fulgorid 
Phylloscelis atra Germar 

Cranberry vines in the bogs of Long Island are occasionally 
injured by a small, broad-bodied, nearly black, jumping in- 
sect (Figs. 392 and 393) which in feeding, 
punctures the vines, causing the leaves to turn 
brown. The fruit does not mature properly 
but shrivels and drops prematurely (Fig. 395). 
The young insects first become noticeable in 
the bogs about the time of blossoming. They 
feed close to the ground under the protection 
of the vines. They are very active when dis- 
turbed and difficult to catch. They do not 
become mature until the last of August and 
in September. The adults live for a consider- 

Fig. 394. — Egg ^ 

of the cranberry able time but die off gradually at the approach 
fulgorid Mathe- of ld weat her. The egg measures .8 mm. 

son del. (x 50). °r? 

in length and is shown in Figure 394. 
Control. 

Experiments on Long Island would indicate that the young 
nymphs can be killed by a thorough application of " Black 




CRANBERRY INSECTS 



473 



Leaf 40" tobacco extract, 1 pint in 100 gallons of water, adding 
4 or 5 pounds of soap to make it stick and spread better. 




Fig. 395. — Injured and uninjured cranberries. 



CHAPTER XV 

INSECTICIDES 

Arsenic in its various compounds is the cheapest and most 
efficient insecticide in common use. For this purpose only 
compounds insoluble in water can be "used, since arsenic in 
solution is injurious to foliage, even when present in only small 
quantities. 

Arsenic 

White arsenic, arsenious oxid (As 2 3 ), is a white powder. 
It is the cheapest form in which arsenic can be obtained. It is 
soluble in water and therefore very injurious to foliage. A 
cheap and efficient insecticide may, however, be prepared from 
it by the following methods : 

For use with Bordeaux mixture only. — Sal soda, 2 pounds ; 
water, 1 gallon; arsenic, 1 pound. Mix the white arsenic 
into a paste and then add the sal soda and water, and boil 
until dissolved. Add water to replace any that has boiled 
away, so that one gallon of stock solution is the result. Use 
one quart of this stock solution to 50 gallons of Bordeaux mix- 
ture for fruit trees. Make sure there is enough lime in the 
mixture to prevent the caustic action of the arsenic. 

For use without Bordeaux mixture. — Sal soda, 1 pound ; 
water, 1 gallon ; white arsenic, 1 pound ; quicklime, 2 pounds. 
Dissolve the white arsenic with the water and sal soda as above, 
and use this solution while hot to slake the 2 pounds of lime. 
Add enough water to make 2 gallons. Use 2 quarts of this 
stock solution in 50 gallons of water. 

474 



INSECTICIDES 475 

As there is always some danger of foliage injury from the use 
of these homemade arsenic compounds, and as they cannot 
be safely combined with the dilute lime-sulfur when used as a 
summer spray, they are now rarely employed in commercial 
orchard spraying. 

Paris Green 

Pure Paris green, 3 Cu(As0 2 )2 • Cu(C 2 H 3 2 )2, is composed of 
copper oxid CuO, acetic acid HC 2 H 3 2 and arsenious oxid 
As 2 3 chemically combined as copper-aceto-arsenite as fol- 
lows : 

Copper oxid . • 31.29 per cent 

Arsenious oxid 58.65 per cent 

Acetic acid 10.06 per cent 

The commercial grades often contain impurities and vary 
somewhat from the above. By the National Insecticide Law 
of 1910 Paris green must contain at least fifty per cent of ar- 
senious oxid, and must not contain arsenic in water soluble form 
equivalent to more than three and one half per cent of arseni- 
ous oxid. 

For many years Paris green has been the standard arsenical 
insecticide for orchard use ; but owing to the danger of foliage 
injury on stone fruits and even on pears and apples when used 
freely, it has now been generally replaced by the safer and more 
adhesive arsenate of lead. Furthermore, Paris green cannot 
be safely combined with the dilute lime-sulfur when used as a 
summer spray, nor can it be used in the self-boiled lime-sulfur 
on peach. In spraying apples it is usually used at the rate of 
eight ounces in 100 gallons of water. The danger of foliage 
injury is greatly lessened by using Paris green in Bordeaux 
mixture, or if applied in water by adding lime twice the bulk of 
Paris green. 

London Purple 

London purple is an arsenite of lime obtained as a by-prod- 
uct in the manufacture of aniline dyes. Its composition is 



476 FBUIT INSECTS 

variable, the arsenic content varying from 30 to 50 per cent. 
It is a finer powder than Paris green and, therefore, remains 
longer in suspension in water. It is used in the same way as 
Paris green, but owing to the presence of much soluble arsenic 
is likely to cause foliage injury. This can be averted by the 
use of lime as advised under Paris green. London purple is 
now little used in orchard spraying. 

Arsenate of Lead 

Arsenate of lead was first used as an insecticide in 1893, 
by the Gypsy Moth Commission of Massachusetts, as a sub- 
stitute for Paris green, since it had been found that the latter 
poison would seriously injure the foliage if applied sufficiently 
strong to kill the gypsy moth caterpillars. It has now almost 
entirely replaced Paris green and London purple for orchard 
work throughout the country. It adheres better to the leaves, 
may be used at considerably greater strength without injuring 
the foliage and may be combined with the dilute lime-sulfur 
solution when used as a summer spray. Combined with the 
self-boiled lime-sulfur it can be safely used on the peach. 

Chemically, arsenate of lead may be either triplumbic ar- 
senate, Pb 3 (As0 4 )2, or plumbic hydrogen arsenate, PbHAsCV 
The commercial product usually consists oi a mixture of these 
two forms, the proportion depending on the method of manu- 
facture employed. The triplumbic arsenate of lead is prepared 
by combining normal sodium arsenate (Na 3 As0 4 ) with either 
lead acetate (PbC 2 H 3 2 ) or lead nitrate (Pb(N0 3 )2). If any 
di-sodium hydrogen arsenate (Na 2 HAs04) be present, there 
is then formed some of the plumbic hydrogen arsenate. 

Arsenate of lead is usually sold in the form of a thick paste, 
but for some purposes the powdered form is preferred. Under 
the National Insecticide Act of 1910, arsenate of lead paste 
must not contain more than 50 per cent water and must con- 



INSECTICIDES 477 

tain the arsenic equivalent of at least 12| per cent arsenic 
oxid (As 2 5 ). The water soluble arsenic must not exceed an 
equivalent of f of one per cent of arsenic oxid. Some of the 
commercial preparations contain a larger percentage of arsenic 
than required by the law. In the best grades of arsenate of 
lead paste the chemical is in a finely divided condition, and 
thus when diluted for use remains in suspension for a con- 
siderable time. If the paste contains less than 50 per cent 
water it is likely to be lumpy and requires considerable time 
and labor to get it into condition for use. 

Arsenate of lead is used at various strengths, depending upon 
the insect to be killed and on the susceptibility of the foliage 
to injury. Four pounds inlOO gallons can be used on the peach 
if combined with the self-boiled lime-sulfur; on apple four or 
five pounds in 100 gallons is usually sufficient, although a greater 
strength can be used without danger of injury to the foliage ; 
on grapes for killing the grape root-worm beetles and the rose 
chafer eight to ten pounds in 100 gallons have been found 
necessary. The poison is more readily eaten by these beetles 
if sweetened by two gallons of molasses in 100 gallons, but 
unfortunately the addition of molasses greatly decreases the 
adhesiveness of the poison. 

Arsenate of lead is also sold in the form of a powder. In case 
the powder is fine enough to remain in suspension when mixed 
with water it gives practically as good results as the paste form. 
One pound of powdered arsenate of lead is equivalent to 2 
pounds of the paste form. 

Homemade arsenate of lead. — Haywood and McDonnell 
give the following directions for making arsenate of lead. 

For every pound of arsenate of lead it is desired to make, use : 



u 



Formula A : 

Ounces. 

Sodium arsenate (65 per cent) 8 

Lead acetate (sugar of lead) . 22 



478 FRUIT INSECTS 

Formula B: Ounces 

Sodium arsenate (65 per cent) 8 

Lead nitrate , 18 

Dissolve each salt separately in from 1 to 2 gallons of water 1 
(they dissolve more readily in hot water), using wooden vessels. 
After solution has taken place, pour slowly about three fourths 
of the lead acetate or nitrate into the sodium arsenate. Mix 
thoroughly and test the mixture by dipping into it a strip of 
potassium iodid test paper 2 which will turn a bright yellow if 
lead is in excess. If the paper does not turn yellow, add more 
of the lead salt slowly, stirring constantly, and test from time 
to time. When the solution turns the paper yellow sufficient 
lead salt is present, but if it should occur that the paper does 
not turn yellow after all the lead salt has been added dissolve 
a little more and add until an excess is indicated. The great 
advantage of this test is that it is not necessary to filter the so- 
lution or wait for it to settle. 

If the paper is not at hand, the test may be made by adding 
a few drops of a solution of potassium iodid, when, if lead is in 
excess, the instant the drops touch the solution a bright yellow 
compound, lead iodid, will be formed. 

It is very essential that the lead salt be added in slight excess, 
but a large excess should be avoided. 

If the material has been carefully prepared with a good grade 
of chemicals, it will not be necessary to filter and wash the lead 
arsenate formed, though it would be a safe precaution to allow 
the lead arsenate to settle, then decant the clear solution and 
discard it. Approximately 1 pound of actual lead arsenate 
will be obtained by using the amounts of chemicals specified, 

1 The solution of lead acetate may have a milky appearance. This will be no 
objection and it need not be filtered. 

2 If potassium iodid paper cannot be obtained it may be prepared by dissolv- 
ing a few crystals of potassium iodid in about a tablespoonf ul of water and satu- 
rating filter paper or blotting paper with this solution. After the paper has dried, 
cut into strips and keep dry until needed. 



INSECTICIDES 479 

which is equivalent to practically 2 pounds of commercial lead 
arsenate in the paste form. It may be made up to 50 gallons 
with water if a formula is being used which calls for 2 pounds 
of commercial lead arsenate to 50 gallons, or if a stronger appli- 
cation is desired add less water." 

Zinc Arsenite 

Arsenite of zinc, Zn (As0 2 )2, is a light fluffy powder and con- 
tains the equivalent of 40 per cent arsenious oxid. It has been 
used extensively on the Pacific slope as a substitute for arsenate 
of lead. It kills insects somewhat more quickly than the latter 
poison and is fairly safe on apple foliage when used with Bor- 
deaux or lime. When used in water or sweetened with molasses 
or glucose it causes severe injury to grape foliage, but may be 
safely used with Bordeaux mixture. It is probable that foliage 
injury by zinc arsenite is due to the solubility of this poison 
in water containing a small quantity of carbonic acid ; the latter 
is usually present on the leaves, being derived from the respira- 
tion of the plant. One pound of zinc arsenite is equivalent in 
effectiveness to about three pounds of arsenate of lead. 

Hellebore 

Hellebore is a light brown powder made from the roots of the 
white hellebore plant (Veratrum album), one of the lily family. 
It is applied both dry and in water. In the dry state, it is usu- 
ally applied without dilution, although the addition of a little 
flour will render it more adhesive. In water, 4 ounces of the 
poison is mixed with 2 or 3 gallons, and an ounce of glue, or thin 
flour paste, is sometimes added to make it adhere. A decoction 
is made by using boiling water in the same proportions. Helle- 
bore soon loses its strength, and a fresh article should always 
be demanded. It is much less poisonous than the arsenicals, 



480 FRUIT INSECTS 

and should be used in place of them upon ripening fruit. It is 
used for various leaf-eating insects, particularly for the currant 
worm and rose slug. 

Soaps 

Soap solutions are often used as contact insecticides for kill- 
ing plant-lice and other small, soft-bodied insects. The so- 
called whale-oil or fish-oil soaps are most widely used for this 
purpose. The commercial brands are usually by-products 
from the manufacture of other products, and contain many 
impurities; furthermore, many of them contain an excess of 
free or uncombined alkali and are consequently very likely to 
injure young and tender foliage. An excellent fish-oil soap may 
be easily prepared at home by the following formula : 

Caustic soda 6 pounds 

Water ^ gallon 

Fish-oil 22 pounds 

Completely dissolve the caustic soda in the water, and then add 
the fish-oil very gradually under constant and vigorous stirring. 
The combination occurs readily at ordinary summer tempera- 
tures and boiling is unnecessary. Stir briskly for about twenty 
minutes after the last of the oil has been added. 

A good insecticide soap can be prepared in a similar way from 
cotton-seed oil soap-stock or from the more impure grade 
known as pancoline. In fact, there is on the market a good 
insecticide soap made from similar materials. 

Sulfur 

Sulfur is commonly sold in two forms, — flowers of sulfur and 
flour of sulfur. Flowers of sulfur or sublime sulfur is a fine, 
impalpable yellow powder insoluble in water, and is formed by 
condensing sulfur vapor in a large chamber of brick work. If 
the sulfur vapor is condensed to the liquid form in a cold re- 



INSECTICIDES 481 

ceiver, roll sulfur is formed. Flour of sulfur is made by grind- 
ing roll sulfur to a fine powder. 

In the form of a powder or dust, sulfur is especially valuable 
against red spider. In California flowers of sulfur mixed with 
equal parts of hydrated lime is blown on the trees for the control 
of red spider and mite. Sulfur is sometimes used for the same 
purpose mixed with water at the rate of 1 pound in 3 gallons of 
water, in which a little soap has been dissolved to help keep the 
sulfur in suspension. The sulfur settles quickly and should be 
agitated constantly during spraying. The sulfur will remain in 
suspension longer if first made into a paste with water contain- 
ing | of 1 per cent of glue. 

Lime-sulfur Solution 

A solution of lime and sulfur was first used as an insecticide 
in California in 1886. The mixture at that time was known 
as the lime-sulfur and salt wash, but experience has shown that 
the presence of the salt does not increase the value of the wash, 
and it is now usually omitted. The lime-sulfur solution is the 
most widely used, safest and most efficient contact insecticide 
now available for the control of scale insects and blister-mite. 

In many regions it has also replaced Bordeaux mixture for 
the control of fungous diseases on apple and pear. 

When lime and sulfur are boiled together in water, a compli- 
cated chemical reaction takes place. The calcium (Ca) con- 
tained in the lime (CaO) combines with the sulfur (S) in varying 
amounts. Two of the compounds thus formed are calcium 
pentasulfid (CaS 5 ) and calcium tetrasulfid (CaS 4 ), containing 
respectively 80 and 76 per cent of sulfur. At the same time 
there is always formed a smaller quantity of thiosulf ate (CaS203) . 
These three compounds are soluble in water and give to the solu- 
tion its insecticidal value. It is supposed that a solution will be 
more effective in proportion as it contains a higher percentage 

2i 



482 FRUIT INSECTS 

of the pentasulfid. To insure the complete union of the sulfur 
and lime, it is necessary to boil the mixture about one hour. 
If boiled much less than an hour, some of the ingredients will be 
left in a free and insoluble condition, forming a sediment. If 
boiled much more than an hour, insoluble compounds of calcium 
and sulfur are formed, which go to increase the quantity of 
sediment. 

To avoid the formation of sediment in the solution, it is im- 
portant that only high grade lime be used, that the lime and 
sulfur be combined in proper proportions, and that the mixture 
should not be cooked in too concentrated a form. 

To obtain the best results, use lime guaranteed to contain at 
least 95 per cent calcium oxid ; lime containing less than 90 per 
cent should be avoided. Lime containing more than five per 
cent magnesium oxid should never be used, as the presence of the 
magnesium causes an unnecessary loss of sulfur, produces the 
poisonous hydrogen sulfid gas (H 2 S) and increases the amount 
of sediment. In order to avoid the presence of uncombined 
lime or sulfur in the mixture, twice as much sulfur as lime is 
used (90 per cent calcium oxid) , since this is the proportion in 
which they combine under these conditions. 

Several formulas have been used in the past, but the follow- 
ing, worked out at the Geneva Agricultural Experiment Station, 
is on the whole the most satisfactory for commercial work. 

Homemade concentrated lime-sulfur solution. 

Lump lime (95 per cent calcium oxid 38 pounds 

^ [90 per cent calcium oxid 40 pounds 

Sulfur 80 pounds 

Water , 50 gallons 

Make a paste of the sulfur with about 10 gallons of hot water. 
Add the lime. As the lime slakes add hot water as necessary 
to prevent caking. When the lime has slaked add hot water to 
make 50 gallons and boil one hour, stirring constantly. Water 



INSECTICIDES 



483 



should be added from time to time to keep the liquid up to 50 
gallons. Store in air-tight hardwood barrels. Test the strength 
of the solution with a Beaume hydrometer and dilute for use 
according to the following table : 

DILUTIONS FOR DORMANT AND SUMMER SPRAYING 
WITH LIME-SULFUR MIXTURES 



Reading on Hydrometer 



Degrees Beaume 

35 

34 

33 ..... . 

32 

31 

30 ..... . 

29 

28 

27 ..... . 

26 . 

25 ..... . 

24 

23 ..... . 

22 

21 

20 ..... . 

19 

18 

17 

16 . 

15 

14 



Amount op Dilution 

Number of Gallons of Water to One Gallon of 

Lime-sulfur Solution 



For San Jose 
scale 



9 

8f 
8| 
8 
7 1 

« 2 

7| 

6i 

61 
6 

5! 
51 



For blister-mite 



12* 
12 

HI 
11 

m 

10 

91 
9 

8 

Ik 



5 


7 


4 1 

^2 


61 


41 


6 


3f 


5| 


3* 


5 


31 


42 


3 


4i 


2| 


4 


21 


3f 


2| 


31 


2 


3 



For summer spray- 
ing of apples 



45 
43| 

411 

40 

37f 

361 

341 

32f 

31 

29| 

27f 

26 

241 

22f 

211 

19f 

181 

17 

16 

15 

14 

121 



484 FRUIT INSECTS 

An older formula and the one most widely used in the past is 
given below. This does not give a concentrated wash but the 
mixture is applied at the original strength without dilution. 

Homemade lime-sulfur. 

Quicklime 20 pounds 

Sulfur (flour or flowers) 15 pounds 

Water 50 gallons 

The lime and sulfur must be thoroughly boiled. An iron kettle 
may be used for this purpose, or the mixture may be cooked in 




Fig. 396. — A plant for cooking lime-sulfur solution. 

barrels by forcing live steam into it through a pipe or rubber 
hose (Fig. 396). Place the lime in the kettle or barrel and add 



INSECTICIDES 485 

hot water gradually in sufficient quantity to produce the most 
rapid slaking of the lime. If too much water is added at first, 
it "drowns" the lime and slaking takes place very slowly. 
When the lime begins to slake add the sulfur and stir it in thor- 
oughly. When the slaking is completed add more water and 
boil the mixture about one hour. As the lime and sulfur go 
into solution a rich orange-red or olive-green color will appear, 
depending on the kind of lime used. After boiling one hour 
add water to the required amount and strain into the spray 
tank. This wash is most effective when applied warm, but may 
be used cold. 

Owing to the excess of lime used a solution made by the above 
method will contain a large quantity of sediment. As this sedi- 
ment is liable to clog the nozzles and interfere with the appli- 
cation of the wash, and as it has little insecticidal value, this 
method of preparation has been abandoned by most commercial 
growers, who now use the concentrated solution. 

Concentrated commercial lime-sulfur. — There are on the mar- 
ket many brands of the concentrated lime-sulfur solution. 
They usually test from 30 to 33 degrees Beaume and should 
for use be diluted according to the table given above. 

Self-boiled lime-sulfur. — This preparation is used primarily 
as a fungicide for the prevention of brown rot on stone fruits. 
This is not a boiled solution, as might be inferred from the name. 
It is prepared by placing in a barrel 8 pounds of the best stone 
lime, to which is added a small quantity of cold water in order 
to start it slaking. Eight pounds of sulfur worked through a 
sieve to break up the lumps is then added slowly to the slaking 
lime, which is kept from burning by the addition of just enough 
cold water so as not to drown it. The slaking mixture must 
be stirred constantly. Just as soon as the slaking is completed 
(which should be in five to fifteen minutes), fill the barrel with 
cold water (50 gallons). The mixture is strained into the 
sprayer tank through a sieve of 20 meshes to the inch. It must 



486 FRUIT INSECTS 

be agitated constantly while being applied, as it settles rapidly. 
When properly made this is simply a fine mechanical mixture of 
lime and sulfur produced by the heat and bubbling action of 
slaking, and should have but little sulfur in solution. This 
mixture is especially adapted for the spraying of peaches and 
plums in foliage, as it causes no injury. Arsenate of lead may 
be added to this mixture for the control of plum curculio. 

EMULSIONS. 

Emulsions are oily or resinous sprays in which these sub- 
stances are suspended in water in the form of minute globules, 
a condition brought about by the addition of soap. They form 
an important class of contact insecticides useful particularly 
against scale insects and plant-lice. 

Kerosene Emulsion 

Kerosene emulsion is one of the oldest of our contact in- 
secticides. It is especially valuable for use against plant-lice 
and other small, soft-bodied insects. It is prepared by the 
following formula : 

Soap \ pound 

Water 1 gallon 

Kerosene . 2 gallons 

Dissolve the soap in hot water ; remove from the fire and while 
still hot add the kerosene. Pump the liquid back into itself 
for five or ten minutes or until it becomes a creamy mass. If 
properly made the oil will not separate on cooling. 

For use on dormant trees, dilute with 5 to 7 parts of water. 
For killing plant-lice on foliage, dilute with 10 to 15 parts of 
water. Crude oil emulsion is made in the same way by substi- 
tuting crude oil in place of kerosene. The strength of oil emul- 



INSECTICIDES 487 

sions is frequently indicated by the percentage of oil in the 
diluted liquid : 

For a 10 per cent emulsion add 17 gal. water to 3 gal. stock emulsion. 
For a 15 per cent emulsion add 10^ gal. water to 3 gal. stock emulsion. 
For a 20 per cent emulsion add 7 gal. water to 3 gal. stock emulsion. 
For a 25 per cent emulsion add 5 gal. water to 3 gal. stock emulsion. 

Distillate Emulsion 

Distillate emulsion is widely used in California. 

Distillate (28° Beaume) .20 gallons 

Whale-oil soap 30 pounds 

Water 12 gallons 

Dissolve the whale-oil soap in the water, which should be 
heated to the boiling point, add the distillate and agitate thor- 
oughly while the solution is hot. For use add 20 gallons of 
water to each gallon of the stock emulsion. 

Carbolic Acid Emulsion 

This spray is used in California for mealy bugs, plant-lice 
and the soft brown scale. 

Whale-oil soap 40 pounds 

Crude carbolic acid . . ... . . 5 gallons 

Water 40 gallons 

Dissolve the soap completely in hot water, add the carbolic 
acid, and heat to the boiling point for 20 minutes. For use 
add 20 gallons of water to each gallon of stock emulsion. 

Miscible Oils 

There are now on the market a number of concentrated oil 
emulsions, known as soluble or miscible oils, intended primarily 
for use against the San Jose scale. For this purpose they are 



488 FRUIT INSECTS 

fairly effective when diluted with not more than 15 parts of 
water. To lessen danger of injury to the trees applications 
should not be made when the temperature is below freezing, 
nor when the trees are wet with snow or rain. Trees are less 
susceptible to injury just before the buds start in the spring. 
Methods have been devised for preparing these concentrated 
emulsions at home, but as there is considerable danger attend- 
ing the process, it is better to buy them ready-made. 

Tobacco 

Tobacco is one of our most useful insecticides. The poison- 
ous principle in tobacco is an alkaloid, nicotine, which in the 
pure state is a colorless oily fluid, slightly heavier than water, 
of little smell when cold and with an exceedingly acrid burn- 
ing taste even when largely diluted. It is soluble in water and 
entirely volatile. It is one of the most virulent poisons known ; 
a single drop is sufficient to kill a dog. 

Commercial tobacco preparations have been on the market 
for many years. The most important of these are Black Leaf, 
" Black Leaf 40" and Nicofume. 

Black Leaf was formerly the most widely used tobacco ex- 
tract. It contains only 2.7 per cent nicotine and has now been 
replaced by the more concentrated extracts. It is used for 
plant-lice at the rate of 1 gallon to 65 gallons of water. 

"Black Leaf 40" is a concentrated tobacco extract containing 
40 per cent nicotine sulfate. Its specific gravity is about 1.25. 
In this preparation the nicotine is in a non-volatile form, it 
having been treated with sulfuric acid to form the sulfate. 
" Black Leaf 40" is used at strengths varying from 1 part in 
800 parts of water to 1 part in 1600 parts. It can be satisfac- 
torily combined with other sprays, as, for instance, lime- 
sulfur solution, arsenate of lead and the various soap solutions. 
When used with water about 4 pounds of soap should be added 



INSECTICIDES 489 

to each 100 gallons to make the mixture spread and stick 
better. 

Nicofume is a tobacco extract containing 40 per cent of nico- 
tine in the volatile form. It is intended primarily for use in 
greenhouses. Strips of paper soaked in this preparation are 
smudged in greenhouses to destroy aphids. 

Tobacco is also used in the form of dust for the same purpose. 
It is especially valuable against root-lice on asters and other 
plants. Tobacco extracts can be made at home by steeping 
tobacco stems in water, but as they vary greatly in nicotine con- 
tent and are sometimes likely to injure tender foliage, it is better 
to buy the standardized extracts. 

Bordeaux Mixture 

Bordeaux mixture has been for many years the most widely 
used fungicide, but has now been replaced by the dilute lime- 
sulfur solution for orchard spraying in many parts of the country, 
owing to the serious foliage injury and russetting of the fruit 
often caused by its use. In addition to its fungicidal properties 
it also acts as a deterrent to many insects, especially flea beetles. 
Either arsenate of lead or Paris green may be used in combina- 
tion with it. 

Bordeaux mixture is prepared by mixing a solution of copper 
sulfate (CuS0 4 ) and milk of lime (Calcium Hydroxide) accord- 
ing to the following formula : 

Copper sulfate 4 pounds 

Lime 4 pounds 

Water .50 gallons 

In some cases a weaker mixture is used, containing 3 pounds 
of copper sulfate and lime respectively. These formulas are 
often abbreviated thus : 4-4-50 and 3-3-50. 

When needed in large amounts Bordeaux mixture is most 



490 FRUIT INSECTS 

conveniently prepared by using a stock solution of copper sul- 
fate and milk of lime, storing them in tubs on an elevated plat- 
form from which the desired quantity of each can be easily 
drawn off into the spray tank. 

Dissolve the required quantity of copper sulfate in water in 
the proportion of one pound to one gallon, several hours before 
the solution is needed; suspend the copper sulfate crystals 
in a sack near the top of the water. A solution of copper sulfate 
is heavier than water. As soon, then, as the crystals begin to 
dissolve, the solution will sink, bringing water again in contact 
with the crystals. In this way, the crystals will dissolve much 
sooner than if placed in the bottom of the barrel of water. In 
case large quantities of stock solution are needed, two pounds 
of copper sulfate may be dissolved in one gallon of water. 

Slake the required quantity of lime in a tub or trough. Add 
the water slowly at first, so that the lime crumbles into a fine 
powder. If small quantities of lime are used, hot water is pre- 
ferred. When completely slaked or entirely powdered, add more 
water. When the lime has slaked sufficiently, add water to 
bring it to a thick milk or to a certain number of gallons. The 
amount required for each tank of spray mixture can be secured 
approximately from this stock mixture, which should not be 
allowed to dry out. Hydrated or prepared lime of good quality 
may be substituted for the stone lime. Place the required quan- 
tity in the barrel or tank and add water. No slaking is required. 
Do not use air-slaked lime. 

Take five gallons of stock solution of copper sulfate for every 
fifty gallons of Bordeaux required. Pour this into the tank. 
Add water until the tank is about two thirds full. From the 
stock lime mixture add the required quantity. Stir the mixture, 
add water to make 50 gallons. Experiment Stations often rec- 
ommend the diluting of both the copper sulfate solution and the 
lime mixture to one half the required amount before putting 
together. This is not necessary, and is often impracticable 



INSECTICIDES 491 

for commercial work. It is preferable to dilute the copper 
sulfate solution. Never pour together the concentrated stock 
mixtures and dilute afterward. Bordeaux mixture of other 
strengths as recommended is made in the same way, except 
that the amounts of copper sulfate and lime are varied according 
to the requirements. 

It is not necessary to weigh the lime in making Bordeaux 
mixture, for a simple test can be used to determine when enough 
of a stock lime mixture has been added. Dissolve an ounce of 
yellow prussiate of potash in a pint of water and label it " poison." 
Cut a V-shaped slit in one side of the cork so that the liquid 
may be poured out in drops. Add the lime mixture to the di- 
luted copper sulfate solution until the ferrocyanide test solution 
will not turn brown when dropped from the bottle into the mix- 
ture. It is always best to add a slight excess of lime. 

Fumigation 

The fumes of hydrocyanic acid gas are very destructive to 
insect life. Fumigation with this gas is practiced extensively 
in greenhouses, in citrus orchards, where the trees are inclosed 
in portable tents for the purpose, and for the destruction of scale 
insects on nursery stock. 

Hydrocyanic acid gas is a deadly poison, and the greatest 
care should be exercised in its use. For generating the gas 
always use 98 to 100 per cent pure potassium cyanide, and a good 
grade of commercial sulfuric acid. The chemicals are always 
combined in the following proportion : 

Potassium cyanide 1 ounce 

Sulfuric acid .1 fluid ounce 

Water 3 fluid ounces 

Use an earthen dish, pour in the water first, then add the 
sulfuric acid to it. Put the required amount of cyanide into a 



492 FRUIT INSECTS 

thin paper bag, and when all is ready, drop it into the liquid 
and leave the room immediately. 

Dormant nursery stock may be fumigated in a tight box 01 
fumigating house made especially for the purpose. Fumigating 
houses are built of two thicknesses of matched boards, with 
building paper between, and are provided with tight-fitting 
doors, and with ventilators. The stock should be reasonably 
dry to avoid injury, and should be piled loosely in the house to 
permit a free circulation of the gas. Use 1 ounce of potassium 
cyanide to each 100 cubic feet of space, and let the fumigation 
continue 40 minutes to one hour. 



INDEX 



abdominalis, Hartigia, 334. 
Ablerus clisiocampce, 168, 179. 
abnormis, Aphelinus, 175. 
aculiferus, Leptostylus, 194. 
Adoxus obscurus, 451. 
cenea, Tischeria, 71. 
cenescens, Magdalis, 199. 
Agrilus ruficollis, 332. 

sinuatus, 230. 
albida, Syneta, 205. 
Alceris minuta, 59, 462. 

minuta Cinderella, 60. 
Aleyrodes packardi, 369. 
Allorhina mutabilis, 298. 

nitida, 296. 
Alsophila pometaria, 86. 
alternata, Rhynchagrotis, 139. 
Alypia octomaculata, 420. 
americana, Harrisina, 416. 
americana, Malacosoma, 112. 
americana, Schizoneura, 157. 
American plum borer, 253. 
American raspberry beetle, 323. 
Ampeloglypter ater, 426. 

sesostris, 425. 
Amphicerus bicaudatus, 423. 
amygdali, Pulvinaria, 264. 
amygdalina, Caliroa, 288. 
Anaphes gracilis, 168, 175. 
Anarsia lineatella, 284. 
Ancylis comptana, 361. 

nubeculana, 61. 
ancylus, Aspidiotus, 179. 
annua?, Aphis, 152. 
annulata, Brochymena, 208. 
annulipes, Pimpla, 16. 
Anomala lucicola, 402. 

marginata, 402. 
Anomolon exile, 121. 
antennata, Xylina, 39. 
Anthonomus quadrigibbus, 35. 

signatus, 372. 



antiqua, Notolophus, 105. 
Antique tussock-moth, 105. 
Apanteles cacoeciai, 58. 

hyphantrioe, 111. 

sp., 55. 
Aphelinus abnormis, 175. 

diaspidis, 337. 

fuscipennis, 168, 175. 

raafo', 157. 

mytilaspidis, 168, 175. 
Aphids, on apple, 142. 
Aphis annual, 152. 

/or6esi, 382. 

raaZt, 147. 

mdlifolioz, 149. 

persicai-niger, 289. 

pomi, 147. 

scotti, 259. 

setaria, 259. 

sorbi, 149. 
apicalis, Labena, 197. 
appendiculatus, Gymnonychus, 344. 
Apple bud-aphis, 151. 

bud-borer, 184. 

bud-worm, 46. 

curculio, 35. 

flea-beetles, 204. 

fruit-miner, 26. 

insects, 9. 

leaf-aphis, 147. 

leaf-hopper, 180. 

leaf-hopper, Bird's, 183. 

leaf -sewer, 61. 

leaf-skeletonizer, 67. 

maggot, 31. 

red bugs, 28. 

weevil, 38. 

wood-stainer, 198. 
Apple-tree borer, flat-headed, 194. 

borer, round-headed, 185. 

borer, spotted, 193. 

tent-caterpillar, 112. 
Aramigus fulleri, 389. 
Araneus displicatus, 59. 
Archips argyrospila, 62. 
493 



494 



INDEX 



Archips cerasivorana, 309. 

obsoletana, 364. 

rosaceana, 65. 
arctica, Hadena, 138. 
Argyresthia conjugella, 26. 
argyrospila, Archips, 62. 
Arsenate of lead, 476. 
Arsenic, 474. 
Arsenite of zinc, 479. 
Arrhenophagus chionaspidis, 337. 
arundinis, Hyalopterus, 258. 
Ascogaster carpocapsce, 16. 
Aspidiotiphagus citrinus, 168. 
Aspidiotus ancylus, 179. 

forbesi, 312. 

howardi, 234. 

juglans-regice, 360. 

ostreceformis, 260. 

perniciosus, 162. 

rapax, 180. 

wwe, 429. 
Astichus tischerice, 76. 
ater, Ampeloglypter, 426. 
a£ra, Phylloscelis, 472. 
Aulacaspis pentagona, 295. 

roses, 336. 
aurantii, Prospaltella, 168. 
avence, Siphocoryne, 151. 

B 

badistriga, Homohadena, 138. 
bey a, Noctua, 139. 
Bembecia marginata, 335. 
Bethylus sp., 16. 
bicaudatus, Amphicerus, 423. 
bifidus, Telenomus, 111. 
Big-headed borer, California, 197. 
bimaculata, Oberea, 326. 
bim-aculatus, Tetranychus, 208, 315. 
birdii, Empoasca flavescens, 183. 
Bird's apple leaf-hopper, 183. 
bivulnerus, Chilocorus, 168, 261. 
Blackberry crown-borer, 335. 

insects, 315. 

leaf -miner, 317. 

psyllid, 322. 
Blackbird, red-winged, 64. 
Black-headed cranberry worm, 460. 
"Black Leaf," 488. 
"Black Leaf 40," 488. 



Black-lined cutworm, 139. 

Black-marked strawberry slug, 366. 

Black peach aphis, 289. 

Black vine-weevil, 387. 

blancardella, Lithocolletes, 72. 

Blister-mite, pear-leaf, 227. 

Bluejay, 92. 

Bordeaux mixture, 489. 

borealis, Ceresa, 162. 

Bracon charus, 197. 

eurygaster, 201. 

mellitor, 185. 

pectinator, 197. 
Brochymena annulata, 208. 

quadripustulata, 209. 
Bronze apple-tree weevil, 199. 
Brown fruit-chafer, 298. 
Brown-tail moth, 135. 
bruceata, Rachela, 93. 
Bruce's measuring-worm, 93. 
brunnea, Colaspis, 393. 
Bryobia pratensis, 206. 
bubalus, Ceresa, 160. 
bucculatricis, Encyrtus, 58. 
Bucculatrix pomifoliella, 56. 
Bud-moth, 42. 
Buffalo tree-hopper, 160. 
By turns unicolor, 323. 

C 

caoecice, Apanteles, 58. 
calidum, Calosoma, 92, 121. 
California big-headed borer, 197. 

grape root-worm, 451. 

tussock-moth, 104. 
caliginosus, Harpalus, 380. 
Caliroa amygdalina, 288. 
Calliephialtes messor, 17. 
Calocampa nupera, 470. 
Calosoma calidum, 92, 121. 

scrutator, 92, 121. 

sycophanta, 133. 
canadensis, Epochra, 355. 
Canarsia hammondi, 67. 
Candida, Saperda, 185. 
canellus, Typophorus, 391. 
Canker-worm, fall, 86. 

spring, 77. 
Carbolic acid emulsion, 487. 
caricinus, Corymbites, 55. 



INDEX 



495 



Carolina, Mantis, 111. 
Carpocapsa pomonella, 10. 
carpocapsos, Ascogaster, 16. 
catskillensis, Odynerus, 44. 
Cecidomyia oxycoccana, 465. 
Cenocoelius populator, 190. 
Cenopis diluticostana, 286. 
cerasi, Myzus, 310. 
cerasivorana, Archips, 309. 
Ceresa borealis, 162. 

bubalus, 160. 

taurina, 162. 
ceryicaulis, Scymnus, 157. 
Chalcis ovata, 102. 
chalybea, Haltica, 403. 
charus, Bracon, 197. 
Cherry fruit-flies, 304. 

fruit sawfly, 307. 

insects, 304. 

plant-louse, 310. 

scale, 312. 
Cherry-tree tortrix, 309. 
Chickadee, 17, 76, 82, 89. 
Chilocorus bivulnerus, 168, 261. 

similis, 168. 
Chiloneurus diaspidinarum, 175. 
chionaspidis, Arrhenophagus, 337. 
Chionaspis furfura, 176. 
Chrysobothris femorata, 194. 

raaZt, 197. 
chrysorrhcea, Euproctis, 135. 
Cigar-case-bearer, 47. 
Cinderella, Alceris minuta, 60. 
cingulata, Oncideres, 202. 
cingulata, Rhagoletis, 304. 
Cirrospilus flavicinctus, 58. 
citrinus, Aspidiotiphagus, 168. 
citrinus, Rhopoidens, 168. 
clandestina, Noctua, 139. 
claripennis, Euphorocera, 103. 
Clean farming, 7. 
Cleora pampinaria, 464. 
Click-beetles, 55. 
Climbing cutworms, 138. 
clisiocampoz, Ablerus, 168, 179. 
Clover mite, 206. 
Cnidocampa flavescens, 106. 
Coccinella novemnotata, 157. 
coccisugus, Ffemisarcoptes, 175. 
Coccotorus scutellaris, 251. 
cockerelli, Dicraneura, 416. 



Codlin-moth, 10. 
cognataria, Lycia, 346. 
Colaspis brunnea, 393. 
Coleophora fletcherella, 47. 

malivorella, 49. 
Collops quadrimaculatus, 168. 
comes, Typhlocyba, 408. 
comptana, Ancylis, 361. 
concinna, Schizura, 125. 
confusella, Gelechia, 287. 
conjugella, Argyresthia, 26. 
Conotrachelus cratozgi, 236. 

nenuphar, 243. 
conquisitor, Pimpla, 121. 
Contarinia johnsoni, 437. 

pyrivora, 225. 
cookei, Hoploca?npa, 307. 
Coptodisca splendoriferella, 75. 
Corimelama pulicaria, 324. 
corni, Lecanium, 261. 
Corymbites caricinus, 55. 

cylindriformis, 55. 

tarsalis, 55. 
Cottony maple scale, 427. 
Crambus hortuellus, 468. 
Cranberry fruit-worm, 466. 

fulgorid, 472. 

gall-fly, 465. 

girdler, 468. 

insects, 460. 

katydid, 467. 

spanworm, 464. 

worm, black-headed, 460. 

worm, yellow-headed, 462. 
Craponius incequalis, 440. 
cratozgi, Conotrachelus, 236. 
cratozgi, Pseudanthonomus, 38. 
Crepidodera helxines, 205. 

rufipes, 205. 
cretata, Saperda, 193. 
cristatus, Prionidus, 111. 
Crop rotation, 8. 
Cucumber flea-beetle, 205. 
cucumeris, Epitrix, 205. 
cunea, Hyphantria, 107. 
Currant-borer, imported, 339. 
Currant fruit-fly, dark, 356. 

fruit-fly, yellow, 355. 

insects, 339. 

plant-louse, 350. 

worm, green, 344. 



496 



INDEX 



Currant worm, imported, 341. 
Currant-stem girdler, 357. 
Cutworm, black-lined, 139. 

dark-sided, 139. 

dingy, 139. 

mottled-gray, 139. 

red, 139. 

speckled, 139. 

spotted-legged, 139. 

variegated, 139. 

well-marked, 139. 

white, 139. 

white-spotted, 138. 

yellow-headed, 138. 
Cutworms, climbing, 138. 
cylindriformis, Corymbites, 55. 
Cymatophora ribearia, 345. 

sulphurea, 464. 

D 

Dark currant fruit-fly, 356. 
Dark-sided cutworm, 139. 
Dasyneura grossularice, 353. 
Datana ministra, 123. 
defoliaria, Erannis, 92. 
delicatus, Macrocentrus, 16. 
Dermestid beetle, 102, 104. 
Desmia funeralis, 418. 
Dewberry insects, 315. 
dianthi, Rhopalosiphum, 291. 
diaspidinarum, Chiloneurus, 175. 
diaspidis, Aphelinus, 337. 
Diaspis rosce, 336. 
Dicraneura cockerelli, 416. 
Dictyna foliacea, 59. 
diluticostana, Cenopis, 286. 
Dingy cutworm, 139. 
dispar, Porthetria, 128. 
dispar, Xyleborus, 232. 
displicatus, Araneus, 59. 
disstria, Malacosoma, 119. 
Distillate emulsion, 487. 
Dusting, 7. 



E 



earinoides, Microdus, 47. 
Eight-spotted forester, 420. 
Elaphidion villosum, 200. 
Emulsion, carbolic acid, 487. 



Emulsion, distillate, 487. 

kerosene, 486. 
Emulsions, 486. 
Emphytus gillettei, 369. 
Empoasca flavescens birdii, 183. 

mali, 180. 
Empria ignota, 368. 

maculata, 366. 
Empusa grylli, 111. 
Enarmonia prunivora, 23. 
Encyrtus bucculatricis, 58. 
Ennomos subsignarius, 99, 
Epiccerus imbricatus, 371. 
Epidiaspis piricola, 234. 
Epinotia pyricolana, 184. 
Epitrix cucumeris, 205. 
Epochra canadensis, 355. 
Erannis defoliaria, 92. 

tiliaria, 89. 
Erinose of the vine, 421. 
Eriocampoides limacina, 214. 
Eriophyes pyri, 227. 

vitis, 421. 
Erythraspides pygmcea, 417. 
Eudemis vacciniana, 460. 
Eulia quadrifasciana, 66. 
Euphoria inda, 298. 

melancholica, 298. 
Euphorocera claripennis, 103. 
Euproctis chrysorrha?a, 135. 
European fruit lecanium, 261. 

fruit-tree scale, 260. 

peach scale, 295. 

pear scale, 234. 
eurygaster, Bracon, 201. 
Euthrips pyri, 223. 

tritici, 301, 379. 
Euzophera semifuneralis, 253. 
Evoxysoma vitis, 442. 
Exartema malanum, 46. 

perrnundanum, 321. 
em'Ze, Anomolon, 121. 
exitiosa, Sanninoidea, 266. 
Eye-spotted apple-twig borer, 209. 

F 

Fall canker-worm, 86. 

Fall webworm, 107. 

False army-worm, 470. 

False tarnished plant-bug, 221. 



INDEX 



497 



fausta, Rhagoletis, 304. 
femorata, Chyrsobothris, 194. 
fennica, Noctua, 139. 
Fidia viticida, 443. 
Flat-headed apple-tree borer, 194. 
flavescens, Cnidocampa, 106. 
flavescens, Empoasca, 183. 
flavicinctus, Cirrospilus, 58. 
Flea-beetle, apple, 304. 

cucumber, 205. 

grape-vine, 403. 

pale-striped, 204. 

red-legged r 205. 

smartweed, 204. 

strawberry, 370. 

willow, 205. 
Flea-beetles, 203. 
fletcherella, Coleophora, 47. 
fletcheri, Pamphilius, 321. 
Flour paste, formula, 316. 
foliacea, Dictyna, 59. 
foliacea, Haltica, 204. 
forbesi, Aphis, 382. 
forbesi, Aspidiotus, 312. 
Forbes' scale, 312. 
Forest tent-caterpillar, 119. 
Four-banded leaf-roller, 66. 
Four-lined leaf-bug, 347. 
foveolatum, Tyloderma, 389. 
fr agar ice, Tyloderma, 388. 
fragilis, Malacosoma, 118. 
frenchii, Frontina, 102. 
Fringed-wing apple bud-moth, 45. 
Frontina frenchii, 102. 
Fruit-tree bark-beetle, 277. 
Fruit-tree leaf-roller, 62. 
fulleri, Aramigus, 389. 
Fuller's rose beetle, 389. 
Fumigation, 491. 
funeralis, Desmia, 418. 
furfura, Chionaspis, 176. 
fusca, Lachnosterna, 395. 
fuscipennis, Aphelinus, 168, 175. 

G 

Gelechia confusella, 287. 
geminatella, Ornix, 73. 
gillettei, Emphytus, 369. 
Gipsy moth, 128. 
Glypta simplicipes, 66. 
2k 



Goniozus sp., 16. 
Gooseberry fruit-worm, 353. 

insects, 339. 

midge, 353. 

span-worm, 345. 
gracilis, Anaphes, 168, 175. 
Grackle, rusty, 60. 
grallator, Labena, 197. 
Grape-berry moth, 430. 
Grape-blossom midge, 437. 
Grape-cane borer, 423. 

gall-maker, 425. 

girdler, 426. 
Grape curculio, 440. 

insects. 397. 

leaf -folder, 418. 

leaf-hopper, 408. 

Phylloxera, 455. 

plume-moth, 422. 

root-worm, 443. 

root-worm, California, 451. 

scale, 429. 
Grape-leaf skeletonizer, 416. 
Grape-seed chalcis, 442. 
Grape-vine flea-beetle, 403. 

root-borer, 452. 

sawfly, 417. 
Graphops pubescens, 393. 
Greedy scale, 180. 
Green currant worm, 344. 
Green fruit-worms, 39. 
Green June-beetle, 296. 
Green peach aphis, 291. 
Green strawberry slug, 368. 
grossularice, Dasyneura, 353. 
grossularice, Zophodia, 353. 
grotei, Xylina, 39. 
Ground-beetles, 82, 92, 380. 
grylli, Empusa, 111. 
guttivitta, Heterocampa, 127. 
Gymnonychus appendiculatus, 344. 

H 

Hadena arctica, 138. 
Half-winged geometer, 96. 
Haltica chalybea, 403. 

foliacea, 204. 

ignita, 370. 

punctipennis, 204. 
Haltichella sp., 17. 



498 



INDEX 



hamatus, Schistocerus, 423. 
hammondi, Canarsia, 67. 
Harpalus caliginosus, 380. 

pennsylvanicus, 380. 
Harrisina americana, 416. 
Hartigia abdominalis, 334. 
Hellebore, 479. 
helxines, Crepidodera, 205. 
H enter ocampa leucostigma, 100. 

vetusta, 104. 
Hemisarcoptes coccisugus, 175. 
Heterocampa guttivitta, 127. 
Heterocordylus malinus, 28. 
hirticula, Lachnosterna, 395. 
Holcocera maligemmella, 45. 
Homohadena badistriga, 138. 
Hoplocampa cookei, 307. 
Hop plant-louse, 256. 
hortuellus, Crambus, 468. 
Howard scale, 234. 
howardi, Aspidiotus, 234. 
hudsonias, Systena, 204. 
humuli, Phorodon, 256. 
Hyalopterus arundinis, 258. 
Hyperaspidius sp., 179. 
Hyphantria cunea, 107. 
hyphantrice, Apanteles, 111. 
hyphantrice, Meteorus, 111. 
Hypostena variabilis, 16. 



ignita, Haltica, 370. 
ignota, Empria, 368. 
ilicis, Lachnosterna, 395. 
Imbricated snout-beetle, 371. 
imbricatus, Epicarus, 371. 
Imported currant borer, 339. 
Imported currant worm, 341. 
inmqualis, Craponius, 440. 
inconspicua, Neurotoma, 254. 
inda, Euphoria, 298. 
indigenella, Mineola, 68. 
inermis, Stictocephala, 161. 
inquisitor, Pimpla, 102, 121. 
ipomozm, Schizura, 139. 
Insecticides, 474. 
Insects, control of, 6. 

development of, 5. 

feeding of, 3. 

metamorphosis of, 5. 



Insects, respiration of, 4. 

structure of, 1. 
integer, Janus, 357. 
invitus, Lygus, 221. 
Ithycerus noveboracencis, 210. 



Janus integer, 357. 
johnsoni, Contarinia, 437. 
juglans-regia;, Aspidiotus, 360. 

K 

Kerosene emulsion, 486. 



Labena apicalis, 197. 

grallator, 197. 
Lachnosterna fusca, 395. 

hirticula, 395. 

ilicis, 395. 

spp., 393. 
lanigera, Schizoneura, 153. 
laticinctus, Microdus, 44. 
laticinerea, Xylina, 39. 
Lead arsenate, 476. 
Leaf-crumpler, 68. 
Leaf-footed plant-bug, 379. 
Leaf-hopper, grape, 408. 
Lecanium corni, 261. 

magnoliarum, 295. 

nigrofasciatum, 293. 

persicaz, 295. 
Lepidosaphes ulmi, 171. 
Leptoglossus phyllopus, 379. 
Leptostylus aculiferus, 194. 
Lesser apple leaf-roller, 59. 
Lesser apple worm, 23. 
Lesser peach-tree borer, 276. 
leucostigma, Hemer ocampa, 100. 
ligulellus, Ypsolophus, 52. 
limacina, Eriocampoides, 214. 
Lime-sulfur solution, 481. 
Lime-tree span-worm, 89. 
liminaris, Phlaeotribus, 282. 
Limneria pallipes, 111. 
lineatella, Anarsia, 284. 
lineatus, Paicilocapsus, 347. 
Lithocolletes blancardella, 72. 



INDEX 



499 



London purple, 475. 
Losses caused by insects, 1. 
lucicola, Anomala, 402. 
Lycia cognataria, 346. 
Lygidea mendax, 28. 
Lygus invitus, 221. 
pratensis, 301, 375. 



M 

Macrocentrus delicatus, 16. 
Macrodactylus subspinosus, 397. 
maculata, Empira, 366. 
Magdalis cenescens, 199. 
magnoliarum, Lecanium, 295. 
mahaleb, Myzus, 257. 
Malacosoma americana, 112. 

disstria, 119. 

fragilis, 118. 

pluvialis, 118. 
malanum, Exartema, 46. 
raafo', Aphelinus, 157. 
raaZt, Aphis, 147. 
raaZi, Chrysobothris, 197. 
raa/t, Empoasca, 180. 
?wafo', Monarthrum, 198. 
raa£i, Pterocyclon, 198. 
malifolice, Aphis, 149. 
malifoliella, Tischeria, 69. 
maligemmella, Holcocera, 45. 
malinus, Heterocordylus, 28. 
malivorella, Coleophora, 49. 
Mamestra subjuncta, 139. 
Mantis Carolina, 111. 
margaritosa, Peridroma, 139. 
marginata, Anomala, 402. 
marginata, Bembecia, 335. 
Mealy plum louse, 258. 
melancholica, Euphoria, 298. 
mella, Tachina, 102, 121. 
mellitor, Br aeon, 185. 
Memythrus polistiformis, 452. 
mendax, Lygidea, 28. 
Mesochorus politus, 58. 
messor, Calliephialtes, 17. 
messoria, Paragrotis, 139. 
Metallus rubi, 317. 
Meteorus hyphantriaz, 111. 
Microdus earinoides, 47. 

laticinctus, 44. 



Microweisea misella, 168, 261. 

suturalis, 168. 
Mineola indigenella, 68. 

vaccinii, 466. 
ministra, Datana, 123. 
minuta, Alceris, 59, 462. 
Miscible oils, 487. 
misella, Microweisea, 168, 261. 
Monarthrum mali, 198. 
Monophadnus rubi, 319. 
Mottled-gray cutworm, 139. 
Mottled umber-moth, 92. 
mutabilis, Allorhina, 298. 
mytilaspidis, Aphelinus, 168. 
Mytilaspis pomorum, 171. 
Myzus cerasi, 310. 

mahaleb, 257. 

persicm, 291. 

ri&is, 350. 

N 

Negro-bug, 324. 
nenuphar, Conotrachelus, 243. 
Nepticula pomivorella, 74. 
Neurotoma inconspicua, 254. 
New York Weevil, 210. 
"Nicofume," 489. 
Nicotine, 488. 

nigricornis, (Ecanthus, 211, 325. 
nigrifemora, Sympiesis, 76. 
nigrofasciatum, Lecanium, 293. 
nitida, Allorhina, 296. 
niveus, (Ecanthus, 211. 
Noctua baja, 139. 

clandestina, 139. 

fennica, 139. 
Nodonota tristis, 255. 
Nothrus ovivorus, 89. 
Notolophus antiqua, 105. 
noveboracencis, Ithycerus, 210. 
novemnotata, Coccinella, 157. 
nubeculana, Ancylis, 61. 
nupera, Calocampa, 470. 
Nuthatch, 17 

O 

Oberea bimaculata, 326. 

ocellata, 209. 
Oblique-banded leaf-roller, 65. 
obscurus, Adoxus, 451. 



500 



INDEX 



obsoletana, Archips, 364. 
Obsolete-banded strawberry leaf-roller, 

364. 
ocellana, Tmetocera, 42. 
ocellata, Oberea, 209. 
octomaculata, Alypia, 420. 
Odynerus catskillensis, 44. 
(Ecanthus nigricornis, 211, 325. 

niveus, 211. 
Oncideres cingulata, 202. 
opalescens Sanninoidea, 275. 
orgyice, Telenomus, 104. 
Oriental moth, 106. 
Ornix geminatella, 73. 
ostreoeformis, Aspidiotus, 260. 
Otiorhynchus ovatus, 386. 

sulcatus, 387. 
ovata, Chalcis, 102. 
ovatus, Otiorhynchus, 386. 
ovivorus, Nothrus, 89. 
oxycoccana, Cecidomyia, 465. 
Oxyptilus periscelidactylus, 422. 
Oyster-shell scale, 171. 



Pacific peach-tree borer, 275. 
packardi, Aleyrodes, 369. 
Paleacrita vernata, 77. 
Pale-striped flea-beetle, 204. 
pallidus, Spathius, 197. 
pallipes, Limneria, 111. 
Palmer-worm, 52. 
Pamera vincta, 379. 
Pamphilius fletcheri, 321. 

persicus, 287. 
pampinaria, Cleora, 464. 
Par agr otis messoria, 139. 

scandens, 139. 
Paris green, 475. 
Peach bark-beetle, 282. 

bud-mite, 301. 

insects, 266. 

sawfly, 287. 

stop-back, 299. 

twig-borer, 284. 
Peach-tree borer, 266. 

borer, lesser, 276. 

borer, Pacific, 275. 
Peach twig-borer, 284. 
Pear-blight beetle, 232. 



Pear borer, 232. 

borer, sinuate, 230. 

insects, 214. 

midge, 225. 

psylla, 218. 

slug, 214. 

thrips, 223. 
Pear-leaf blister-mite, 227. 
pectinator, Bracon, 197. 
pennsylvanicus, Harpalus, 380. 
pentagona, Aulacaspis, 295. 
Pepper-and-salt currant moth, 346. 
Peridroma margaritosa saucia, 139. 
periscelidactylus, Oxyptilus, 422. 
permundanum, Exartema, 321. 
perniciosi, Prospaltella, 168. 
perniciosus, Aspidiotus, 162. 
persicaz, Lecanium, 295. 
persicoz, Myzus, 291. 
persicos-niger , Aphis, 289. 
persicus, Pamphilius, 287. 
Phigalia titea, 96. 
Phlo3otribus liminaris, 282. 
Phorbia rubivora, 329. 
Phorodon humuli, 256. 
phyllopus, Leptoglossus, 379. 
Phylloscelis atra, 472. 
Phylloxera vastatrix, 455. 
Physcus varicornis, 168. 
Phytodietus vulgaris, 44. 
pictipes, Sesia, 276. 
Pimpla annulipes, 16. 

conquisitor, 121. 

inquisitor, 102, 121. 

sp., 44. 
Pipiza radicum, 157. 
piricola, Epidiaspis, 234. 
Pistol case-bearer, 49. 
placida, Rhynchagrotis, 139. 
placidus, Podisus, 121. 
Plant-lice, on apple, 142. 
Plum borer, American, 253. 
Plum curculio, 243. 

gouger, 251. 

insects, 243. 

leaf-beetle, 255. 

plant-louse, 257. 

Pulvinaria, 264. 

web-spinning sawfly, 254. 
pluvialis, Malacosoma, 118. 
Podisus placidus, 121. 



INDEX 



501 



Podisus serieventris, 121. 
Poecilocapsus lineatus, 347. 
polistiformis, Memythrus, 452. 
politus, Mesochorus, 58. 
Polychrosis viteana, 430. 
pometaria, Alsophila, 86. 
pomi, Aphis, 147. 
pomifoliella, Bucculatrix, 56. 
pomivorella, Nepticula, 74. 
pomonella, Carpocapsa, 10. 
pomonella, Rhagoletis, 31. 
pomorum, Mytilaspis, 171. 
populator, Cenocoelius, 190. 
Porosagrotis vetusta, 139. 
Porthetria dispar, 128. 
Potter-wasps, 82. 
pratensis, Bryobia, 206. 
pratensis, Lygus, 301, 375. 
pretiosa, Trichogramma, 16. 
Prionidus cristatus, 111. 
Prodenia sp., 139. 
Prospaltella auranlii, 168. 

perniciosi, 168. 
prunivora, Enarmonia, 23. 
Pseudanthonomus cratcegi, 38. 
Psylla pyricola, 218. 
Pterocyclon mali, 198. 
Pteronus ribesii, 341. 
pubescens, Graphops, 393. 
pulicaria, Corimelcena, 324. 
Pulvinaria amygdali, 264. 

m'fo's, 427. 
punctipennis, Haltica, 204. 
punctipennis, Schistocerus, 425. 
Putnam's scale, 179. 
pygmcea, Erythraspides, 417. 
y>2/n, Eriophyes, 227. 
P2/ri, Euthrips, 223. 
P2/ri, Sesia, 232. 
pyricola, Psylla, 218. 
pyricolana, Epinotia, 184. 
pyrivora, Contarinia, 225. 

Q 

quadrifasciana, Eulia, 66. 
quadrigibbus, Anthonomus, 35. 
quadrimaculatus, Collops, 168. 
quadripustulata, Brochymena, 209. 
Quince insects, 236. 
curculio, 236. 



R 



Rachela bruceata, 93. 
radicum, Pipiza, 157. 
rapax, Aspidiotus, 180. 
Raspberry beetle, American, 323. 

cane-borer, 326. 

cane-maggot, 329. 

horntail, 334. 

insects, 315. 

leaf-roller, 321. 

sawfiy, 319. 

webworm, 321. 
Red cutworm, 139. 
Red-humped apple caterpillar, 125. 
Red-legged flea-beetle, 205. 
Red-necked cane-borer, 332. 
Red-spider, 208, 315. 
Resplendent shield-bearer, 75. 
Rhagoletis cingulata, 304. 

fausta, 304. 

pomonella, 31. 

ribicola, 356. 
Rhopalosiphum dianthi, 291. 
Rhopoidens citrinus, 168. 
Rhynchagrotis alternata, 139. 

placida, 139. 
Ribbed cocoon-maker of the apple, 

56. 
ribearia, Cymatophora, 345. 
ribesii, Pteronus, 341. 
ribicola, Rhagoletis, 356. 
rifo's, Myzus, 350. 
Ring-legged tree-bug, 208. 
riparia, Vitis, 458. 
rosaceana, Archips, 65. 
ros(E, Aulacaspis, 336. 
rosoe, Diaspis, 336. 
Rose chafer, 397. 
Rose scale, 336. 
roseticola, Tischeria, 71. 
Rosy apple aphis, 149. 
Root-borer, grape-vine, 452. 
Round-headed apple-tree borer, 185. 
rw&i, Metallus, 317. 
rwfei, Monophadnus, 319. 
rubivora, Phorbia, 329. 
ruficollis, Agrilus, 332. 
rufipes, Crepidodera, 205. 
rugulosus, Scolytus, 277 '. 
rupestris, Vitis, 458. 



502 



INDEX 



Rusty brown plum aphis, 259. 
rutilans, Sesia, 384. 

S 

Saddled prominent, 127. 
San Jose scale, 162. 
Sanninoidea exitiosa, 266. 

opalescens, 275. 
Saperda Candida, 185. 

cretata, 193. 
saucia, Peridroma margaritosa, 139. 
scandens, Paragrotis, 139. 
Schistocerus hamatus, 423. 

punctipennis, 425. 
Schizoneura americana, 157. 

lanigera, 153. 
Schizura concinna, 125. 

ipomcece, 139. 
Scolytus rugulosus, 277. 
scotti, Aphis, 259. 
scrutator, Calosoma, 92, 121. 
Scudderia texensis, 467. 
Scurfy scale, 176. 
scutellaris, Coccotorus, 251. 
Scymnus ceryicaulis, 157. 
semifuneralis, Euzophera, 253. 
serieventris, Podisus, 121. 
Serpentine leaf-miner, 74. 
$esia pictipes, 27 '6. 

P2/n, 232. 

rutilans, 384. 

tipuliformis, 339. 
sesostris, Ampeloglypter, 425. 
setarice, Aphis, 259. 
signatus, Anthonomus, 372. 
similis, Chilocorus, 168. 
simplicipes, Glypta, 66. 
Sinuate pear borer, 230. 
sinuatus, Agrilus, 230. 
Siphocoryne avence, 151. 
Smartweed flea-beetle, 204. 
Snowy tree-cricket, 211. 
Soaps, 480. 
sorfri, Aphis, 149. 
Southern plum aphis, 259. 
Spathius pallidus, 197. 
Speckled cutworm, 139. 
splendoriferella, Coptodisca, 75. 
Spotted apple-tree borer, 193. 
Spotted-legged cutworm, 139. 



Spotted tentiform leaf-miner, 72. 
Spraying, 6. 

Spraying schedule for apples, 9. 
Spring canker-worm, 77. 
Stictocephala inermis, 161. 
Stop-back of peach, 299. 
Strawberry crown-borer, 388. 

crown-girdler, 386. 

crown-miner, 385. 

crown-moth, 384. 

flea-beetle, 370. 

insects, 361. 

leaf-roller, 361. 

leaf-roller, obsolete-banded, 364. 

roqt-louse, 382. 

root- worms, 391. 

slug, black-marked, 366. 

slug, green, 368. 

thrips, 379. 

weevil, 372. 

whitefly, 369. 
Striped peach worm, 287. 
subjuncta, Mamestra, 139. 
subsignarius, Ennomos, 99. 
subspinosus, Macrodactylus, 397. 
sulcatus, Otiorhynchus, 387. 
Sulfur, 480. 

sulphurea, Cymatophora, 464. 
suturalis, Microweisea, 168. 
sycophanta, Calosoma, 133. 
Sympiesis nigrifemora, 76. 
Syneta albida, 205. 
Systena hudsonias, 204. 

tceniata, 204. 



Tachina sp., 82, 89, 93, 111. 

mella, 102, 121. 
Tachinophyto sp., 17. 
tceniata, Systena, 204. 
Tarnished plant-bug, 301, 375. 
Tarnished plant-bug, false, 221. 
tarsalis, Corymbites, 55. 
Tarsonemus waitei, 301. 
taurina, Ceresa, 162. 
telarius, Tetranychus, 208. 
Telenomus bifidus, 111. ■ 

orgy ice, 104. 
Tent-caterpillar, apple-tree, 112. 

forest, 119. 






INDEX 



503 



Tent-caterpillar, western, 1 18. 

Terrapin scale, 293. 

Tetranychus bimaculatus, 208, 315. 

telarius, 208. 
texensis, Scudderia, 467. 
Thrush, 82. 
tiliaria, Erannis, 89. 
tipuliformis, Sesia, 339. 
Tischeria cenea, 71. 

malifoliella, 69. 

roseticola, 71. 
tischerioe, Astichus, 76. 
titea, Phigalia, 96. 
Tmetocera ocelldna, 42. 
Toads, 64, 117, 121. 
Tobacco, 488. 
Tree-cricket, 325. 

snowy, 211. 
Trichogramma pretiosa, 16. 
Trioza tripunctata, 322. 
tripunctata, Trioza, 322. 
tristis, Nodonota, 255. 
tritici, Euthrips, 301, 379. 
Trombidium sp., 16. 
Trumpet leaf -miner, 69. 
Tussock-moth, antique, 105. 

California, 104. 

white-marked, 100. 
Twig-girdler, 202. 
Twig-pruner, 200. 
Two-spotted mite, 208. 
Tyloderma foveolatum, 389. 

fragarice, 388. 
Typhlocyba comes, 408. 
Typophorus canellus, 391. 

U . 

ulmi, Lepidosaphes, 171. 
unicolor, Byturus, 323. 
Unspotted tentiform leaf-miner, 73. 
uvoe, Aspidiotus, 429. 



vacciniana, Eudemis, 460. 
vaccinii, Mineola, 466. 
variabilis, Hypostena, 16. 
varicornis, Physcus, 168. 
Variegated cutworm, 139. 
vastatrix, Phylloxera, 455. 
vernata, Paleacrita, 77. 



veticsta, Hemerocampa, 104. 
vetusta, Porosagrotis, 139. 
villosum, Elaphidion, 200. 
vincta, Pamera, 379. 
Vine chafers, 402. 
viteana, Polychrosis, 430. 
viticida, Fidia, 443. 
fli^s, Eriophyes, 421. 
1'7'^'s, Evoxysoma, 442. 
iota's, Pulvinaria, 427. 
Frfo's riparia, 458. 

rupestris, 458. 
vulgaris, Phytodietus, 44. 

W 

waitei, Tarsonemus, 301. 
Walnut scale, 360. 
Warblers, 82. 

Well-marked cutworm, 139. 
Western tent-caterpillar, 118. 
White cutworm, 139. 
White ennomid, 99. 
White grubs, 393. 
White-marked tussock-moth, 100. 
White peach scale, 295. 
White-spotted cutworm, 138. 
Willow flea-beetle, 205. 
Woodpecker, 197. 

downy, 17. 
Woolly aphis, 153. 

X 

Xyleborus dispar, 232. 
Xylina antennata, 39. 

grotei, 39. 

laticinerea, 39. 



Yellow currant fruit-fly, 355. 
Yellow-headed cranberry worm, 462. 
Yellow-headed cutworm, 138. 
Yellow-necked apple caterpillar, 123. 
Ypsolophus ligulellus, 52. 

Z 

Zaporus sp., 58. 
Zinc arsenite, 479. 
Zophodia grossularice, 353. 



nPHE following pages contain advertisements of a 
few of the Macmillan books on kindred subjects 



INJURIOUS INSECTS 

HOW TO RECOGNIZE AND CONTROL THEM 
By WALTER C. O'KANE 

Entomologist of the New Hampshire Experiment Station, and Professor 
of Economic Entomology in New Hampshire College 

Decorated Cloth. 414 pages. Over 600 Photographic Illustrations 

$2.00 net; postpaid, $2.17 

Written out of a large scientific knowledge, but in a popular style, this book 
discusses concisely and yet fully the characteristics, life histories, and means of 
control of our common injurious insects. 

The illustrations are from photographs throughout. The idea of the author 
has been to picture graphically the injurious stages and the work of the various 
pests, so that they may easily be recognized, independently from the text. More 
than 135 of the illustrations are photomicrographs. 

All of the common injurious forms are described, including the pests of or- 
chard, garden, field crops, domestic animals, and the household. 

The arrangement of species is original and unique. In each division the 
pests are grouped according to the place where found at work and the charac- 
teristics. Prompt identification is thus made easy. 

Other valuable features of the volume are : 

Complete directions for the preparation and use of insecticides. Spray for- 
mulas, repellents, and fumigants described in detail. 

Descriptions and photographs of spray machinery and accessories. 

An illustrated discussion of the structure of insects. How they live : their 
habits, senses, and manner of growth. 

Insects as carriers of disease. The typhoid fly, the malarial mosquitoes, and 
others. 

The classification of insects, including illustrated descriptions of the various 
important groups into which insects are divided. 

An account of the means by which insects are dispersed. 

The natural enemies of insects. How they are held in check by parasites, 
by fungous and bacterial diseases, and by birds and other larger animals. 

How farm practice assists in insect control, showing the influence of plow- 
ing, cultivating, destruction of weeds, and the like. 

A complete bibliography, giving an authoritative reference for each species 
treated in the book. 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

Publishers 64-66 Fifth Avenue New York 



A NEW VOLUME IN THE RURAL SCIENCE SERIES 
Edited by L. H. Bailey 



THE FARM WOODLOT 

By E. G. CHEYNEY 

Director of the College of Forestry of the University of Minnesota 

and J. G. WENTLING 

Associate Professor of Forestry in the University of Minnesota 

Illustrated. Cloth, i2mo, $1.50 net 

The whole subject of raising forests and producing timber as a part of a 
farming business is covered in this book. Here will be found fully 
treated such topics as the rise of forestry knowledge in relation particularly 
to agriculture, forest influences, forest economics, the growth of the tree, 
the kinds of trees and the means of distinguishing them, the regeneration 
of the woodlot, the practical propagation of trees, methods of planting 
and thinning, the production of the forest, the best utilization of forests, 
the durability and preservation of timber. There are also included tables 
of interest to lumbermen and a chapter on ornamental planting. The 
volume is well illustrated, the illustrations alone largely explaining forest 
practices and making evident the differences in trees. 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

Publishers 64-66 Fifth Avenue New York 



NEW VOLUMES IN 

The Rural Text-Book Series 

Edited by L. H. Bailey 

TEXT-BOOK ON FORAGE CROPS 

By Professor C. V. PIPER 

Of the United States Department of Agriculture 

Cloth, i2mo 

A clear and concise account of the present knowledge of forage cropping in 
North America, intended primarily as a text-book for the use of agricultural 
college students. The author presents the subject in such a way as to make the 
student realize the shortcomings of the present knowledge on the subject, as 
well as the progress which has been definitely accomplished. All the plants 
and crops which are used for forage and for hay are described, and their botan- 
ical characteristics and means of cultivation are carefully discussed. The 
grasses, alfalfa, the clovers, the millets, and the various fodder crops are all 
treated. 

SMALL GRAINS 

By M. A. CARLETON 

Cerealist of the United States Department of Agriculture 

Cloth, i2mo 

The cereal grains and buckwheat are described carefully. Their methods 
of cultivation and of handling and marketing are thoroughly discussed. Among 
the grains thus treated are wheat, oats, rye, barley, and the minor crops. This 
book will prove an admirable complement to Montgomery's " The Corn 
Crops." Both these books are intended primarily for use as texts in college 
courses, and may very well be used in conjunction in the general course on 
grain crops. These books also are of distinct interest and value to the farmer. 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

Publishers 64-66 Fifth Avenue New York 



NEW VOLUMES IN THE RURAL TEXT-BOOK SERIES 



IRRIGATION 



By JOHN A. WIDTSOE 

President of the Utah Agricultural College 

Illustrated, Cloth, i2mo 

Although much of the writing on irrigation has been from the engineering 
point of view, this book is written distinctly from the point of view of practical 
farming. President Widtsoe has drawn not only upon his own intimate 
knowledge of conditions in an irrigated country, but also upon all the available 
literature on the application of water to land for irrigating purposes. The effect 
of water on the soil, the losses by seepage and evaporation, the service that 
water renders to the plants, and the practical means of employing water for the 
growing of the different crops are all discussed clearly and thoroughly. 

WEEDS 

By ADA E. GEORGIA 

Of the New York State College of Agriculture at Cornell University 

Illustrated, Cloth, i2mo 

A summary of our present knowledge regarding weeds as they affect horti- 
cultural and agricultural practices. The relations of weeds to agriculture are 
described, and the causes making certain plants weeds are explained. Every 
separate species of weed known to occur in the United States or Canada is de- 
scribed, and its range and habitat stated. The crops which each species partic- 
ularly infests and the means of controlling each species are also discussed. 
Between 300 and 400 original illustrations, made directly from the plants, 
greatly enhance the practical value of this book. 



FIELD CROPS 



By GEORGE LIVINGSTON 

Assistant Professor of Agronomy, Ohio State University 

Illustrated, Cloth, i2mo, $ 1.40 net 

This text is intended to meet the needs of agricultural high schools and of 
brief courses in Field Crops in the colleges. Based on actual experiment, it 
points out the " better way " of raising field crops ; of selecting the field ; of pre- 
paring the soil ; of sowing the seed ; of cultivating the plant ; of harvesting the 
crop. It is to be fully illustrated with reproductions from photographs of un- 
usual excellence. 

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

Publishers 64-66 Fifth Avenue New York 



FARM STRUCTURES 



By K. J. T. EKBLAW, M.S. 

Associate in Agricultural Engineering, University of Illinois ; Associate 
Member of American Society of Agricultural Engineers 

Illus., Cloth, Crown 8vo, 347 pp., $1.75 net; postpaid, $1.88 

In the preparation of this book it has been purposed to provide a 
treatise concerning farm structures which will appeal not only to the 
teacher who desires to present the subject to his students in a straightfor- 
ward and practical way, but to the progressive farmer who recognizes the 
advantages of good farm buildings. The popular literature on this subject 
consists mainly of compilations of plans accompanied by criticisms of more 
or less value, or of discussions of farmsteads too expensive or impractical 
to be applied to present ordinary conditions. The elimination of these 
faults has been among the objects of the author in the writing of this text. 

The development of the subject is manifestly the most logical, begin- 
niagsKvith a description of building materials, followed by a discussion of 
the basic methods employed in simple building construction, then present- 
ing typical plans of various farm buildings in which the principles of con- 
struction and arrangement have been applied. Descriptions of the more 
essential requirements in the way of equipment and farm-life conveniences 
are appended. The illustrations have been prepared with the object of 
making them truly illustrative and of aid in the understanding of the sub- 
ject matter which they accompany. Comparatively few building plans are 
included, since most buil Hng problems possess so many local requirements 
that a general solution is impossible; however, the plans presented are 
typical, and are so suggestive in presenting fundamental principles that a 
study of them will aid in the solution of any particular individual problem. 

It is not intended that the study of this text will produce an architect; 
but it is hoped that it will provide the student with a sufficient knowledge 
of building operations to enable him, with some knowledge of carpentry, 
to erect his own minor structures and to differentiate between good and 
bad construction in larger ones. 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

Publishers 64-66 Fifth Avenue New York 



" Every library, every country home, every city home with even the small- 
est window box, every school, and every office whose business in any way 
touches outdoor life, will find pleasure, profit, and inspiration in this great 
set of books." 

THE STANDARD CYCLOPEDIA 
OF HORTICULTURE 

Edited by L. H. BAILEY 

With the assistance of over 500 collaborators. New edition, entirely 
rewritten and enlarged, with many new features ; with 24 plates in color, 
96 full-page half-tones, and over 4000 text illustrations. To be complete 
in six volumes. Sold only in sets by subscription. 

Volume I (A-B), Cloth, 8vo, $6.00; Leather, $10.00 

This work, an enlarged version of the famous Cyclopedia of American 
Horticulture, has been freshly written in the light of the most recent re- 
search and the most modern experience. It is not merely an ordinary 
revision or corrected edition of the old Cyclopedia, but it is a new work 
from start to finish, with enlarged boundaries both geographically and 

Is 

practically. It supersedes and displaces all previous editions or reprints 
of every kind whatsoever. 

It is the fullest, the newest, the most authoritative of all works of its 
kind, and constitutes the most conscientious attempt that has ever been 
made to compress the whole story of our horticultural thought, learning, 
and achievement into one set of books. The text is under alphabetical 
arrangement supplemented by a Synopsis of the Plant Kingdom, a Key to 
the identification of the species, and an Index to the complete set. 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

Publishers 64-66 Fifth Avenue New York 



" Every library, every country home, every city home with even the small- 
est window box, every school, and every office whose business in any way 
touches outdoor life, will find pleasure, profit, and inspiration in this great 
set of books. " 

THE STANDARD CYCLOPEDIA 
OF HORTICULTURE 

Edited by L. H. BAILEY 

With the assistance of over 500 collaborators. New edition, entirely 
rewritten and enlarged, with many new features ; with 24 plates in color, 
96 full-page half-tones, and over 4000 text illustrations. To be complete 
in six volumes. Sold only in sets by subscription. 

Volume I (A-B), Cloth, 8vo, $6.00; Leather, $10.00 

This work, an enlarged version of the famous Cyclopedia of American 
Horticulture, has been freshly written in the light of the most recent re- 
search and the most modern experience. It is not merely an ordinary 
revision or corrected edition of the old Cyclopedia, but it is a new work 
from start to finish, with enlarged boundaries both geographically and 

Is 

practically. It supersedes and displaces all previous editions or reprints 
of every kind whatsoever. 

It is the fullest, the newest, the most authoritative of all works of its 
kind, and constitutes the most conscientious attempt that has ever been 
made to compress the whole story of our horticultural thought, learning, 
and achievement into one set of books. The text is under alphabetical 
arrangement supplemented by a Synopsis of the Plant Kingdom, a Key to 
the identification of the species, and an Index to the complete set. 



THE MACMILLAN COMPANY 

Publishers 64-66 Fifth Avenue New York 



